长春青鸟集团办公楼结构、施工设计【含CAD图纸+文档】
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任务书论文题目：长春青鸟集团办公楼结构、 施工设计 学生姓名： 学院名称： 专业名称： 班级名称： 学 号： 指导教师： 教师职称: 学 历： 20xx 年 03 月 18 日毕业设计任务书 学院 专业 届 题 目长春青鸟集团办公楼结构、施工设计专业班级学生姓名指导老师任务书下发日期设计截止日期难度系数毕业设计（论文）的主要内容：毕业设计分为结构、施工二个阶段。结构阶段的主要内容：本工程为长春青鸟集团办公楼，地址为吉林省长春市，大楼主体八层，总建筑面积8380.8，房间尺寸为7.2m7.2m。结构阶段的主要内容：根据已给建筑图纸进行结构布置，手算完成一层楼板配筋计算、一榀标准框架的内力、侧移、配筋计算、一部楼梯的计算、一榀框架柱基础的计算，利用计算机程序（PKPM）进行复核验算，并完成上述相应配筋的图纸绘制，以及结构总说明、一层框架梁、柱的平面表示法等图纸。施工设计任务：编制分部分项工程量清单、措施项目清单、其他项目清单及计算清单报价、综合单价；编制施工组织设计（施工方案设计、施工进度计划、施工平面布置图）详细要求见附件1。毕业设计（论文）的主要要求:计算书要求：计算书完整，排版工整，图文并茂，计算结果与结构施工图、计算条件相吻合。图纸要求：施工图中的线条、表示方法、尺寸及各种符号、文字标注均遵照 建筑结构制图标准中有关规定；布图疏密均匀，比例准确，线形清晰流畅，图面整洁，字体工整规范。主要参考文献：1 GB500102010混凝土结构设计规范 北京：中国建筑工业出版社，20102 GB/T 50105-2001建筑结构制图标准北京：中国建筑工业出版社，20013 GB500092012建筑结构荷载规范北京：中国建筑工业出版社，20104 GB5001l2010建筑抗震设计规范北京：中国建筑工业出版社，20105 JGJ3-2010高层建筑混凝土结构技术规范北京：中国建筑工业出版社，20116 GB500072011建筑地基基础设计规范北京：中国建筑工业出版社，20117 混凝土结构施工图平面表示方法制图规则和构造详图(03G1011)中国建筑标准设计研究所，2005 其它参考资料见附件2。任务书编制教师（签章）： 年 月 日教研室审核意见:教研室主任(签章): 年 月 日学院审核意见:学院院长(签章): 年 月 日备注注：任务书中的数据、图表及其他文字说明可作为附件附在任务书后面，并在主要要求中标明：“见附件”毕业设计内容的详细要求：一、毕业设计条件此题目来源于工程实际，建筑设计部分已经完成，建筑施工图直接给定，要求学生完成此建筑的结构设计和施工设计。气象资料：标准冻土深度1.7 m，其它查看相关资料。地形条件：基地地势平坦，邻近城市干道，城市上、下水及电煤气管网在附近通过。抗震条件：场地类别类，抗震设防烈度7度，设计基本地震加速度0.1g，设计地震分组第一组。地质勘察报告见附件1。二、 毕业设计内容及要求1设计内容结构设计部分1结构布置2计算内容1）楼板内力、配筋计算；2）楼梯内力、配筋计算；3）一榀框架内力、侧移计算及框架梁、柱配筋计算；4）基础配筋计算。5）计算机程序复核3结构施工图1）结构平面布置图及楼板配筋图；2）楼梯结构布置及配筋图；3）框架梁、柱配筋图及平法表示图；4）基础平面布置及配筋详图；5）手绘图一张。4结构部分设计要求1）施工图中的线条、表示方法、尺寸及各种符号、文字标注均遵照 建筑结构制图标准中有关规定。 2）布图疏密均匀，比例准确，线形清晰流畅，图面整洁，字体工整规范。施工设计部分编制完成一份招标工程量清单；施工投标书（1）设计内容：编制工程量清单投标文件报价书。格式暂按08清单规范，13清单规范颁布后执行13清单格式。包括：封面、投标总价表、总说明、单位工程投标报价汇总表、分部分项工程量清单计价表、工程量清单综合单价分析表、措施项目清单计价表、其它项目清单计价表、主要材料价格表施工组织设计（侧重基础和主体分部分项工程施工方案、施工进度计划、施工平面布置图）（2）设计依据本工程建筑与结构全套施工图纸；吉林省建筑工程定额(2006、2009)；建设工程工程量清单计价规范，吉林省装饰装修工程定额； (2006、2009)；现场条件如下：推土机运距50米以内。余土外运采用汽车，运距10公里。预制桩、预制窗台板在构件厂制作，汽车运输，运距5或10公里。其他预制构件（地沟盖板、过梁）现场制作。预制构件不考虑蒸汽养护。木门窗在加工厂制作，汽车运输，运距10公里，木门采用自然干燥。施工企业级别自定。混凝土现场搅拌，现场泵送、商品混凝土自定。（2）施工组织1）工程概况内容：工程概况、地点特征、施工条件、施工特点分析及本工程的主要实物量。2）施工方案测量放线：测量工作的总要求，工程轴线的控制；垂直度控制。土方工程：工程降排水设计，支撑支护设计，土方开挖、运输及回填。基础工程：确定施工顺序，施工机械、机具的选择，施工方法、质量要求及相应质量控制措施。主体工程：确定施工顺序，施工机械、机具的选择，主要构件模板、脚手架选型与设计，钢筋、模板、混凝土、钢结构的施工方法、质量要求及相应质量控制措施。砌筑工程：砖墙、砌块墙、组合墙的组砌方法及质量要求，质量控制措施。保温工程：确定施工顺序，各个构造层次的施工方法、质量要求、相应质量控制措施及材料运输方式等。装饰工程：确定施工顺序及流水施工安排，主要装饰工程施工工艺、施工方法、质量要求、相应质量控制措施。防水工程：屋面、地下防水的施工顺序、方法、质量要求等。施工技术组织措施：保证质量措施，保证安全措施，冬雨季施工措施。3）编制单位工程施工进度计划编制单位工程施工进度计划的初始方案；施工进度计划的初始方案的检查和调整（适当绘制劳动力动态曲线）绘制施工进度计划表4）单位工程施工平面布置图（）布置内容的确定起重运输机械的布置：塔式起重机、混凝土泵和泵车、施工电梯等的布置。搅拌站、加工棚、仓库及材料构件堆场的布置：计算搅拌站、加工棚、仓库及材料构件堆的面积；合理确定搅拌站、加工棚、仓库及材料构件堆场的位置。运输道路的布置：选择路面的结构和宽度，合理布置施工道路。临时设施的布置：计算确定各种临时设施的面积；合理确定其位置。临时供水供电线路的布置：合理确定。绘制施工平面布置图2毕业设计成果要求学生在建筑设计基础上完成结构的施工图设计、招标工程量清单报价；施工组织设计的编制。每位学生除了按照要求完成工程图纸外，还要完成一份毕业设计说明书。3. 毕业设计时间安排结构设计部分结构设计部分进度安排如下表：周别设计内容需要天数备注第一周收集资料，熟悉图纸1结构布置，确定截面尺寸，计算荷载1一层楼板计算2一层楼板配筋图绘制1第二周框架简图，框架刚度计算恒荷载作用下内力计算活荷载作用下内力计算4风荷载作用下计算1第三周地震作用下内力计算2梁柱截面设计、节点设计2梁柱施工图绘制1第四周梁柱施工平法图绘制2楼梯计算及施工图绘制3第五周基础计算3基础施工图绘制2第六周手绘图、资料整理施工设计部分施工设计部分进度安排如下表：周别设计内容备注第七周工程量清单、工程量计算分部分项工程量清单；措施项目清单第八周工程量清单、工程量计算钢筋抽料计算第九周投标报价计算综合单价计算、总价计算第十周施工方案编制施工方案构思（一稿）第十一周施工方案编制方案设计（二稿）第十二周施工进度计划；施工平面图计划编制，平面图设计毕业设计内容设计12周，答辩1周，总计13毕业设计时间。附件1地质勘察报告1）场地工程地质条件概述建筑场地位于市区内，场地地势平坦，由钻探资料探明场区地层由上而下分别为：（1）杂填土：含有大量砖石碎块和人工垃圾，厚约1.3米；（2）粘土：棕黄色，稍湿，呈可塑状态，厚约3.8米；（3）淤泥质土：黑灰色，含有大量腐植质，呈流塑状态，厚约5.0米；（4）粉质粘土：呈可塑状态，厚约4.1米。（5）粘土：呈硬塑状态，未穿透。各类土的主要物理力学性质指标见表。土的物理力学性质指标层次土层名称土层厚度(m)土的天然密度(t/m3)土的天然含水量(%)孔隙比e塑性指数IP液性指数IL土的内摩角(度)土的粘聚力C(kPa)压缩模量ES(MPa)承载力特征值fak(KPa)1杂填土1.31.682粉质粘土3.81.87240.72140.625129.01603淤泥质土5.01.75401.5191.2105.03.0954粉质粘土4.11.90280.72190.52726.512.52655粘土未穿透1.96260.7200.2284514.62902）地下水情况本场区地下水属潜水，水位高程为-2.4米，略受季节的影响，但变化不大。根据该场区原有测试资料，地下水无腐蚀性。3）工程地质条件评价（1）本场地地层条件评价如下： 杂填土：物质成分复杂，承载力较低，压缩性不均匀，不能作为基础持力层。 粉质粘土：处于可塑状态，有一定的承载力，可支撑四、五层建筑物，当建筑物荷载较大时，作为基础持力层将增加基础造价。 淤泥质土：含水量高，孔隙比大，属高压缩性土，不能作为基础持力层。 粉质粘土：承载力较高，可作为桩基持力层。 粘土：承载力较高，可作为桩基持力层。（2）建议当建筑物荷载不大时，可采用天然地基上浅基础方案，将基础埋置于粘土中，但在基础设计中，应考虑软弱下卧层的影响；如采用桩基，可将桩基置于粉细纱或中砂中。单桩承载力计算参数表(kPa)土的名称混凝土预制桩泥浆护壁钻孔桩干作业钻孔桩侧阻qsik端阻qpk侧阻qsik端阻qpk侧阻qsik端阻qpk粉质粘土584554淤泥质土251826粉质粘土762800701000681500粘土9650008813009023004）附图（1）场地钻孔平面布置图（2）工程地质剖面图附件2 毕业设计参考资料1 GB 50010混凝土结构设计规范北京：中国建筑工业出版社，20102 GB/T 50105建筑结构制图标准北京：中国建筑工业出版社，20103 GB 50009建筑结构荷载规范北京：中国建筑工业出版社，20124 GB 5001l建筑抗震设计规范北京：中国建筑工业出版社，20105 JGJ3高层建筑混凝土结构技术规程北京：中国建筑工业出版社，20106 GB50007建筑地基基础设计规范北京：中国建筑工业出版社，20117 JGJ94建筑桩基技术规范北京：中国建筑工业出版社，2008. 8 孙维东等混凝土结构设计北京：机械工业出版社，20129 梁兴文，史庆轩土木工程专业毕业设计指导科学出版社，200910 包世华结构力学(下册)武汉：武汉工业大学出版社，200911 张誉混凝土结构基本原理北京：中国建筑工业出版社，201012 丰定国，王社良抗震结构设计武汉：武汉工业大学出版社，201013 赵明华土力学与基础工程武汉：武汉工业大学出版社，201014 赵志缙高层建筑施工手册上海：同济大学出版社，200715 上海市筑业联合会等.建筑工程质量控制与验收.北京：建筑工业出版社, 2008. 16 北京建工集团.建筑分项工程施工工艺与标准. 北京：建筑工业出版社,2006.17 中华人民共和国国家标准.建设工程工程量清单计价规范.北京:中国计划出版社,2008. 18 吉林省建设厅.吉林省建筑工程定额.长春:吉林人民出版社,2006、200919 吉林省建设厅.吉林省装饰装修工程定额.长春:吉林人民出版社,2006、200920 吉林省建设厅.吉林省建设工程材料预算价格.长春:吉林人民出版社,2006、200923吉林省建设厅.吉林省建设工程费用定额.长春:吉林人民出版社,2006、200924陈建民.建设工程量清单计价编制要解与实例.合肥:安徽科学技术出版社.2003 所用图集：1地沟及盖板 （J331、J332-2009） 2预应力混凝土管桩（03SG409）3预制钢筋混凝土方桩（04G361）4混凝土结构施工图平面表示方法制图规则和构造详图（11G101-1） Civil EngineeringCivil engineering, the oldest of the engineering specialties, is the planning, design, construction, and management of the built environment. This environment includes all structures built according to scientific principles, from irrigation and drainage systems to rocket-launching facilities.Civil engineers build roads, bridges, tunnels, dams, harbors, power plants, water and sewage systems, hospitals, schools, mass transit, and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentrations. They also build privately owned facilities such as airports, railroads, pipelines, skyscrapers, and other large structures designed for industrial, commercial, or residential use. In addition, civil engineers plan, design, and build complete cities and towns, and more recently have been planning and designing space platforms to house self-contained communities. The word civil derives from the Latin for citizen. In 1782, Englishman John Smeaton used the term to differentiate his nonmilitary engineering work from that of the military engineers who predominated at the time. Since then, the term civil engineering has often been used to refer to engineers who build public facilities, although the field is much broaderScope. Because it is so broad, civil engineering is subdivided into a number of technical specialties. Depending on the type of project, the skills of many kinds of civil engineer specialists may be needed. When a project begins, the site is surveyed and mapped by civil engineers who locate utility placementwater, sewer, and power lines. Geotechnical specialists perform soil experiments to determine if the earth can bear the weight of the project. Environmental specialists study the projects impact on the local area: the potential for air and groundwater pollution, the projects impact on local animal and plant life, and how the project can be designed to meet government requirements aimed at protecting the environment. Transportation specialists determine what kind of facilities are needed to ease the burden on local roads and other transportation networks that will result from the completed project. Meanwhile, structural specialists use preliminary data to make detailed designs, plans, and specifications for the project. Supervising and coordinating the work of these civil engineer specialists, from beginning to end of the project, are the construction management specialists. Based on information supplies by the other specialists, construction management civil engineers estimate quantities and costs of materials and labor, schedule all work, order materials and equipment for the job, hire contractors and subcontractors, and perform other supervisory work to ensure the project is completed on time and as specified.Throughout any given project, civil engineers make extensive use of computers. Computers are used to design the projects various elements (computer-aided design, or CAD) and to manage it. Computers are necessity for the modern civil engineer because they permit the engineer to efficiently handle the large quantities of data needed in determining the best way to construct a project.Structural engineering. In this specialty, civil engineers plan and design structures of all types, including bridge, dams, power plants, supports for equipment, special structures for offshore projects, the United States space program, transmission towers, giant astronomical and radio telescopes, and many other kinds of projects. Using computers, structural engineers determine the forces a structure must resist: its own weight, wind and hurricane forces, temperature changes that expand or contract construction materials, and earthquakes. They also determine the combination of appropriate materials: steel, concrete, plastic, asphalt, brick, aluminum, or other construction materials.Water resources engineering. Civil engineers in this specialty deal with all aspects of the physical control of water. Their projects help prevent floods, supply water for cities and for irrigation, manage and control rivers and water runoff, and maintain beaches and other waterfront facilities. In addition, they design and maintain harbors, canals, and locks, build huge hydroelectric dams and smaller dams and water impoundments of all kinds, help design offshore structures, and determine the location of structures affecting navigation.Geotechnical engineering. Civil engineers who specialize in this field analyze the properties of soils and rocks that support structures and affect structural behavior. They evaluate and work to minimize the potential settlement of buildings and other structures that stems from the pressure of their weight on the earth. These engineers also evaluate and determine how to strengthen the stability of slopes and fills and how to protect structures against earthquakes and the effects of groundwater.Environmental engineering. In this branch of engineering, civil engineers design, build and supervise systems to provide safe drinking water and to prevent and control pollution of water supplies, both on the surface and underground. They also design, build, and supervise projects to control or eliminate pollution of the land and air. These engineers build water and wastewater treatment plants, and design air scrubbers and other devices to minimize or eliminate air pollution caused by industrial processes, incineration, or other smoke-producing activities. They also work to control toxic and hazardous wastes through the construction of special dump sites or the neutralizing of toxic and hazardous substances. In addition, the engineers design and manage sanitary landfills to prevent pollution of surrounding land.Transportation engineering. Civil engineers working in this specialty build facilities to ensure safe and efficient movement of both people and goods. They specialize in designing and maintaining all types of transportation facilities, highways and streets, mass transit systems, railroads and airfields, ports and harbors. Transportation engineers apply technological knowledge as well as consideration of the economic, political, and social factors in designing each project. They work closely with urban planners, since the quality of the community is directly related to the quality of the transportation system.Pipeline engineering. In this branch of civil engineering, engineers build pipelines and related facilities which transport liquids, gases, or solids ranging from coal slurries (mixed coal and water) and semiliquid wastes, to water, oil, and various types of highly combustible and noncombustible gases. The engineers determine pipeline design, the economic and environmental impact of a project on regions it must traverse, the type of materials to be used-steel, concrete, plastic, or combinations of various materials-installation techniques, methods for testing pipeline strength, and controls for maintaining proper pressure and rate of flow of materials being transported. When hazardous materials are being carried, safety is a major consideration as well.Construction engineering. Civil engineers in this field oversee the construction of a project from beginning to end. Sometimes called project engineers, they apply both technical and managerial skills, including knowledge of construction methods, planning, organizing, financing, and operating construction projects. They coordinate the activities of virtually everyone engaged in the work: the surveyors; workers who lay out and construct the temporary roads and ramps, excavate for the foundation, build the forms and pour the concrete; and workers who build the steel framework. These engineers also make regular progress reports to the owners of the structure.Community and urban planning. Those engaged in this area of civil engineering may plan and develop community within a city, or entire cities. Such planning involves far more than engineering consideration; environmental, social, and economic factors in the use and development of land and natural resources are also key elements. These civil engineers coordinate planning of public works along with private development. They evaluate the kinds of facilities needed, including streets and highways, public transportation systems, airports, port facilities, water-supply and wastewater-disposal systems, public buildings, parks, and recreational and other facilities to ensure social and economic as well as environmental well-being.Photogrametry, surveying, and mapping. The civil engineers in this specialty precisely measure the Earths surface to obtain reliable information for locating and designing engineering projects. This practice often involves high-technology methods such as satellite and aerial surveying, and computer-processing of photographic imagery. Radio signal from satellites, scans by laser and sonic beams, are converted to maps to provide far more accurate measurements for boring tunnels, building highways and dams, plotting flood control and irrigation project, locating subsurface geologic formations that may affect a construction project, and a host of other building uses.Other specialties. Two additional civil engineering specialties that are not entirely within the scope of civil engineering but are essential to the discipline are engineering management and engineering teaching.Engineering management. Many civil engineers choose careers that eventually lead to management. Others are able to start their careers in management positions. The civil engineer-manager combines technical knowledge with an ability to organize and coordinate worker power, materials, machinery, and money. These engineers may work in governmentmunicipal, county, state, or federal; in the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers as military or civilian management engineers; or in semiautonomous regional or city authorities or similar organizations. They may also manage private engineering firms ranging in size from a few employees to hundreds.Engineering teaching. The civil engineer who chooses a teaching career usually teaches both graduate and undergraduate students in technical specialties. Many teaching civil engineers engage in basic research that eventually leads to technical innovations in construction materials and methods. Many also serve as consultants on engineering projects, or on technical boards and commissions associated with major projects. Tall Building. Although there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general, spectacular achievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framingReinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposesThe high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structural systems Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limitExcessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions, ceilings, and other architectural detailsIn addition, excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because of their perception of such motionStructural systems of reinforced concrete, as well as steel, take full advantage of the inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore do not require additional stiffening to limit the sway In a steel structure, for example, the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building.Curve A in Fig.1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of storiesCurve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loadsThe gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frameStructural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premiumTall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations.The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses, a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used.A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building (1974) in MilwaukeeThe maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building，for both strength and stiffness, to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column elements can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the groundThis particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in ChicagoThe most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 1l0-story World Trade Center building in New York The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with diagonal members intersecting at the center line of the columns and beamsThis simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Center in Chicago，using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional 40-story building With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiencyThe 110-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tubes, bundled at the base of the building in three rowsSome of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building，demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural conceptThe Sears tower，at a height of 1450 ft (442 m) ，is the worlds tallest building The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind or earthquake) and the control of drift (1ateral building movement) in high-rise building The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step furtherThe development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the facade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings，and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin facade，the framed members of the tube require 1ess mass，and are thus lighter and less expensiveAll the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes，minimizing the use and cost of special built-up membersThe depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space，is minimizedThe structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittsburgh While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start，development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive challenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings As discussed above，the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment BuildingIn this building，exterior columns were spaced at 5.5-ft (1.68-m) centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in. -thick (20-cm) flat-plate concrete slabsAnother system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tubeThe system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service areaThe system (Fig.2), known as the tube-in-tube system，made it possible to design the worlds present tallest (714 ft or 218m) lightweight concrete building (the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed，an example of which is the composite system developed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systemsThe 52-story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this systemArchitecture. Architecture is the art of buildingVirtually all architecture is concerned with the enclosure of space for human use. The precise activities to be housed in any specific building-ranging from an assembly line in a factory to a living room in a home-should dictate the size and shape of the several areas withinThese spaces also must be arranged in some logical relation to each otherFurthermore，the movement of human beings within the building-“circulation” in architectural parlance-requires halls，stairs，or elevators whose size is governed by the expected load of trafficThe plan of a structure，always the first consideration of an architect，is the resolution of these different purposes into an organization of spaces that will fulfill the intent of the buildingGood planning guides the visitor to his destination in the structure and impresses him，perhaps subconsciously，by visibly relating the several units of the edificeConversely，a bad plan results in inconvenience，waste，and visual confusionFurthermore，a structure must be well built；it should have such permanence as the purpose for which it is intended demands and as the materials chosen may allowThe raw materials of architecturestone，brick，wood，steel，or glassin part govern the forms of the building and are expressed by themStone can resist compression，the force that squeezes together，almost indefinitelyWhile it is possible to crush stone in a laboratory，for practical purposes its compressive strength is unlimitedOn the other hand，stone is weak in withstanding tension，the force that pulls apartAny beam spanning a void tends to bend downward between the supports，putting the lower half of the beam under tensionIt follows from the tensile weakness of stone that beams of this material must be comparatively short and supported at frequent intervals Moreover，stone columns must be sturdy，rarely more than 10 times as high as they are wideIn stone buildings，windows，doors，and the spaces between columns are almost compelled to be taller than they are widethe vertical rectangle of the stone aestheticStone has been so dominant in the architecture of the Western world that forms appropriate to it have been preserved even in buildings constructed of wood，as in the American Georgian periodStone，then，lends itself to the kind of construction in which walls support the floors and roof，to post and lintel construction with rather closely spaced columns，and to arch construction where the stresses are predominantly compressive Anyone who has observed a steel building under construction must have noticed the gridiron of horizontal rectangles produced by the slender，widely spaced columns and the long beams of each floorThe nature of wood and of steel suggests frame constructiona skeleton to support floors and roofwith whatever surfacing material may be necessaryWood and steel also permit cantilever construction in which beams project beyond the last point of support Finally，architecture must do more than meet the physical requirements of strength and space；it must also，content the spirit of manThe building should form an aesthetic unity to which the several parts contributeThus，the sides and rear of a structure should bear sufficient correspondence to the front to make them all related parts of a single whole The major internal divisions，too，require some expression in the external designThe nave，aisles，transepts，apse，and radiating chapels of Gothic cathedrals，for example，are all visible on the exterior，so that the visitor is subconsciously prepared for what he will find insideArchitecture calls for good proportionsa pleasing relationship of voids to solids，of height to width，of length to breadthMany attempts have been made to explain good proportions by mathematical formulas，such as the golden sectionThese efforts have not found general acceptance，however，although good results have been achieved through the repetition of some dimension (for example，a module that is half the diameter of a column) throughout the designSuch repetitions help to produce the visible order that the human mind seems to crave A building also should have what architects call scale；that is，it should visually convey its true sizeSuch elements as benches，steps，or balustrades，though slightly variable in size，are，by their very purpose，related to the normal dimensions of human beingsThey therefore become，almost imperceptibly，units of measurement for gauging the size of the whole edificeBecause these units are so small in comparison to the whole building，other elements of intermediate size are needed. Stairs and a balustrade may give a clue to the size of a doorway；that，in turn，to the height of a colonnade；and finally，the colonnade to the whole structureThe Petit Trianon at Versailles is perfect in scaleThe absence of small elements in StPeters in Rome makes it difficult to perceive its vastness Although all decoration is rejected in some modern architecture，it was employed in the past either for its inherent beauty or to emphasize some point of importance in the building. Decoration or ornament may be used to contribute the character，the visible expression of the purpose of the building.Thus a bank should look like a bank，and a church should be immediately identifiable as such. Ideally，too，any building should seem to belong on its site，with some relationship to its architectural neighbors and the local geography Through the related architectural forms shaped by their purpose，governed by the materials， proportioned and given scale and character by the designer，buildings become expressions of the ideals and aspirations of the generations that built themThe successive styles of historic architecture are incarnations of the spirit of their times土木工程学土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。他们也建造私有设施，比如飞机场，铁路，管线，摩天大楼，以及其他设计用作工业，商业和住宅途径的大型结构。此外，土木工程师还规划设计及建造完整的城市和乡镇，并且最近一直在规划设计容纳设施齐全的社区的空间平台。 土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民”。在1782年，英国人John Smeaton为了把他的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。自从那时起，土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师，尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。领域。因为包含范围太广，土木工程学又被细分为大量的技术专业。不同类型的工程需要多种不同土木工程专业技术。一个项目开始的时候，土木工程师要对场地进行测绘，定位有用的布置，如地下水水位，下水道，和电力线。岩土工程专家则进行土力学试验以确定土壤能否承受工程荷载。环境工程专家研究工程对当地的影响，包括对空气和地下水的可能污染，对当地动植物生活的影响，以及如何让工程设计满足政府针对环境保护的需要。交通工程专家确定必需的不同种类设施以减轻由整个工程造成的对当地公路和其他交通网络的负担。同时，结构工程专家利用初步数据对工程作详细规划，设计和说明。从项目开始到结束，对这些土木工程专家的工作进行监督和调配的则是施工管理专家。根据其他专家所提供的信息，施工管理专家计算材料和人工的数量和花费，所有工作的进度表，订购工作所需要的材料和设备，雇佣承包商和分包商，还要做些额外的监督工作以确保工程能按时按质完成。 贯穿任何给定项目，土木工程师都需要大量使用计算机。计算机用于设计工程中使用的多数元件（即计算机辅助设计，或者CAD）并对其进行管理。计算机成为了现代土木工程师的必备品，因为它使得工程师能有效地掌控所需的大量数据从而确定建造一项工程的最佳方法。 结构工程学。在这一专业领域，土木工程师规划设计各种类型的结构，包括桥梁，大坝，发电厂，设备支撑，海面上的特殊结构，美国太空计划，发射塔，庞大的天文和无线电望远镜，以及许多其他种类的项目。结构工程师应用计算机确定一个结构必须承受的力：自重，风荷载和飓风荷载，建筑材料温度变化引起的胀缩，以及地震荷载。他们也需确定不同种材料如钢筋，混凝土，塑料，石头，沥青，砖，铝或其他建筑材料等的复合作用。 水利工程学。土木工程师在这一领域主要处理水的物理控制方面的种种问题。他们的项目用于帮助预防洪水灾害，提供城市用水和灌溉用水，管理控制河流和水流物，维护河滩及其他滨水设施。此外，他们设计和维护海港，运河与水闸，建造大型水利大坝与小型坝，以及各种类型的围堰，帮助设计海上结构并且确定结构的位置对航行影响。 岩土工程学。专业于这个领域的土木工程师对支撑结构并影响结构行为的土壤和岩石的特性进行分析。他们计算建筑和其他结构由于自重压力可能引起的沉降，并采取措施使之减少到最小。他们也需计算并确定如何加强斜坡和填充物的稳定性以及如何保护结构免受地震和地下水的影响。 环境工程学。在这一工程学分支中，土木工程师设计，建造并监视系统以提供安全的饮用水，同时预防和控制地表和地下水资源供给的污染。他们也设计，建造并监视工程以控制甚至消除对土地和空气的污染。他们建造供水和废水处理厂，设计空气净化器和其他设备以最小化甚至消除由工业加工、焚化及其他产烟生产活动引起的空气污染。他们也采用建造特殊倾倒地点或使用有毒有害物中和剂的措施来控制有毒有害废弃物。此外，工程师还对垃圾掩埋进行设计和管理以预防其对周围环境造成污染。 交通工程学。从事这一专业领域的土木工程师建造可以确保人和货物安全高效运行的设施。他们专门研究各种类型运输设施的设计和维护，如公路和街道，公共交通系统，铁路和飞机场，港口和海港。交通工程师应用技术知识及考虑经济，政治和社会因素来设计每一个项目。他们的工作和城市规划者十分相似，因为交通运输系统的质量直接关系到社区的质量。 渠道工程学。在土木工程学的这一支链中，土木工程师建造渠道和运送从煤泥浆(混合的煤和水)和半流体废污，到水、石油和多种类型的高度可燃和不可燃的气体中分离出来的液体，气体和固体的相关设备。工程师决定渠道的设计，项目所处地区必须考虑到的经济性和环境因素，以及所使用材料的类型钢、混凝土、塑料、或多种材料的复合 的安装技术，测试渠道强度的方法，和控制所运送流体材料保持适当的压力和流速。当流体中携带危险材料时，安全性因素也需要被考虑。 建筑工程学。土木工程师在这个领域中从开始到结束监督项目的建筑。他们，有时被称为项目工程师，应用技术和管理技能，包括建筑工艺，规划，组织，财务，和操作项目建设的知识。事实上，他们协调工程中每个人的活动：测量员，布置和建造临时道路和斜坡，开挖基础，支模板和浇注混凝土的工人，以及钢筋工人。这些工程师也向结构的业主提供进度计划报告。社区和城市规划。从事土木工程这一方面的工程师可能规划和发展一个城市中的社区，或整个城市。此规划中所包括的远远不仅仅为工程因素，土地的开发使用和自然资源环境的，社会的和经济的因素也是主要的成分。这些土木工程师对公共建设工程的规划和私人建筑的发展进行协调。他们评估所需的设施，包括街道，公路，公共运输系统，机场，港口，给排水和污水处理系统，公共建筑，公园，和娱乐及其他设施以保证社会，经济和环境地协调发展。摄影测量，测量学和地图绘制。在这一专业领域的土木工程师精确测量地球表面以获得可靠的信息来定位和设计工程项目。这一 方面包括高工艺学方法，如卫星成相，航拍，和计算机成相。来自人造卫星的无线电信号，通过激光和音波柱扫描被转换为地图，为隧道钻孔，建造高速公路和大坝，绘制洪水控制和灌溉方案，定位可能影响建筑项目的地下岩石构成，以及许多其他建筑用途提供更精准的测量。 其他的专门项目。还有两个并不完全在土木工程范围里面但对训练相当重要的附加的专门项目是工程管理和工程教学。工程管理。许多土木工程师都选择最终通向管理的职业。其他则能让他们的事业从管理位置开始。土木工程管理者结合技术上的知识和一种组织能力来协调劳动力，材料，机械和钱。这些工程师可能工作在政府市政、国家、州或联邦；在美国陆军军团作为军队或平民的管理工程师；或在半自治地区，城市主管当局或相似的组织。他们也可能管理规模为从几个到百个雇员的私营工程公司。 工程教学。通常选择教学事业的土木工程师教授研究生和本科生技术上的专门项目。许多从事教学的土木工程师参与会导致建筑材料和施工方法技术革新的基础研究。多数也担任工程项目或技术领域的顾问，和主要项目的代理。 高层建筑。虽然在建筑施工技术中，总的来说已经有了许多进步，但是在超高层建筑的设计和施工中也取得了惊人的成就。 高层建筑的早期发展始于结构的钢框架。从那以后，钢筋
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