媒介经济与文化(2014).docx

I. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words:1. Economies of scale are a highly prevalent feature of the media industry. It exists in any industry where marginal costs are lower than average costs. When the cost of providing an extra unit of a good falls as the scale of output expands, then economies of scale are present. Economies of scope are commonly characteristic of media enterprises, which is to do with the public-good nature of media output and achieved through multi-product production.2. The most usual method of measuring the degree of oligopoly in a market is by applying a concentration ratio. In the media sector, this concept levels can be calculated on the basis of audience shares (as defined by ratings or readership figures). 3. By the mid-1940s, the Justice Department demanded that the five major film companies Paramount, Warner Brothers, Twentieth Century Fox, MGM, and RKO end vertical integration. In 1948, after a series of court appeals, the Supreme Court ruled against the film industry in what is commonly known as the Paramount Decision, forcing the studios to gradually divest themselves to their theatres.4. Media firms have been joining forces at a faster pace than ever before. They have been involved in takeovers, mergers and other strategic deals and alliances, not only with rival firms in the same business sector, but also with firms in other industries which are now seen as complementary business areas. At least three major strategies of corporate growth can be identified and distinguished: horizontal expansion, vertical expansion and diagonal expansion.5. Firms often use advertising to put up barriers to market entry which prevent other firms from competing with them. Advertising is a feature of oligopoly market structures. One method of keeping out potential new entrants is called brand proliferation all the potential niches are already occupied. The larger the number of differentiated products already being sold by existing oligopolists, the smaller the market available to a new firm entering with a single new product. Another method is heavy advertising a means of imposing high set-up costs on new entrants and this, in turn, serves to deter would-be rivals.6. The ability of producers to exploit copyright effectively may depend on how market power is distributed along the vertical supply chain that stretches between the producer and the consumer. In the television production sector, a distinction can be drawn between two alternative models of financing which, in turn, have important implications for rights ownership. The term deficit financing describe a system, prevalent in the USA, where program-makers share a portion of the financial risks involved in production in return for ownership of secondary and tertiary rights to their programs. Under the cost plus which prevails in the UK, broadcasters who commission programs from independent producers are prepared to cover the production budget in full and also to pay the program-maker a small up-front production fee or profit, usually of around 10 per cent of the total production budget. 7. By the late 1970s cable companies rush to win local cable franchising across USA. During this process, a city (or state) would outline its cable system needs and request bids from cable companies. Then a number of companies-none of which could also own broadcast stations or newspapers in the community-competed for the right to install and manage the cable system.8. Foreign programs are generally subject to a cultural discount they sell for less than domestically made programs of the same type which reflects the natural preference of viewers for content made in their own home markets and in their languages and accents.9. The main policy measures used to protect the European television production industry from US imports is the compulsory European programming quota contained in a Directive entitled Television Without Frontiers or The Broadcasting Directive of 1997 (97/36/EC), one of the fundamental principles of which is that broadcast services should comply with one and only one national law, i. e. the law of the national state from which they originate. 10. Films tend to earn most of their income in three categories of release window-cinema box-office (or theatrical), video and television, and video grew very strongly throughout the 1980s. 11. A key economic issue of our times is whether the cost of getting on the information highway will undermine equal access. Mimicking the economic disparity between rich and poor that grew more pronounced during the 1980s and 1990s, the term digit divide refers to the growing contrast between “information haves,” or digital highway users who can afford to acquire multiple media services, and “information have-nots,” or people who may not be able to afford a computer or the monthly bills for Internet service connections, much less the many options now available on the highway.12. The historical development of media and communication can be traced through several overlapping eras in which newer forms of technology and knowledge disrupted and modified older forms. These eras, which all still operates to greater or lesser degrees, are oral, print, electronic and digital. Oral and written forms begin the dialogue, printed communication spreads the word, electronic and digital communication bring immediacy to the message, and the electronic and digital ears fostered the age of media convergence , which refers to the appearance of older media forms on the newest media channels.II. Choose the best answer to each of the following questions：1. Three major strategies of corporate growth can be identified and distinguished: horizontal, vertical and diagonal expansion. A horizontal merger occurs when who two firms at the same stage in the supply chain or who are engaged in the same activity combine forces. Vertical growth involves expanding either forward into succeeding stages or backward into preceding stages in the supply chain. Diagonal or “lateral” expansion occurs when firms diversify into new business areas. In addition, many media firms have become what are called _ corporations with a presence in many countries and (in some cases) a decentralized management structure. A. trans-nationals B. globalization C. localization D. glocalization 2. In 1910, Congress passes _ requiring that all major ships be equipped with wireless radio. Congress begins issuing radio licenses in 1927. After intense lobbying by the radio industry, Congress passes an act which allows commercial interests to control the airwaves. In 1996, the new bill effects a rapid, unprecedented consideration in radio ownership across the United States.AWireless Ship Act BFederal Communications Act of 1934C Radio Act of 1927 DTelecommunications Act of 19963. For local affiliate stations, syndicated programs are often used or slotted in what is known as fringe time. Syndication to fill these slots comes in two forms. First, there is off-network syndication, in which older programs, no longer running during network prime time, are made available for reruns to local stations, cable operators, online services, and foreign markets. A second type of syndication used to fill fringe time is _, which is any program that is specifically produced for sale into syndication markets.A. fringe syndication B. first-run syndicationC. hybrid syndication D. off-network syndication4. Advertising has two related function: informative and persuasion advertising (setting out to inform consumers of the characteristics of the various products available and to influence consumers by altering their tastes or preferences and, hence, their purchasing decisions). But persuasion advertising is more questionable in terms of its impact on consumer welfare: over-supplied information/incomplete, misleading or distorted messages rather than a useful resource for consumers; _; a possible anti-competitive effect caused by the use of advertising as a means of preventing potential rivals from gaining entry to markets.A. advertising as a barrier to market entry B. lift the price of the goods or service advertised C. higher cost for consumers to make decisions D. advertising presents obscene information or scenes 5. The term market failure tends to be used in two different ways. In one sense it refers to any failure by the market system the unbridled forces of demand and supply to allocate resources efficiently. In another sense, it may refer to the failure of the market to advance socially desirable goals other than efficiency, such as preserving democracy and social cohesion. The provision of some sorts of broadcasting contents may engender a wider cost to society, for example by increasing levels of violence or fear of violence in society. The fact that these costs are not borne by the broadcaster results in market failure because broadcasters may devote more resources to providing television output with negative external effects than is socially optimal. This source of market failure stems from what are referred to as _. A. non-excludable B. non-exhaustibleC. asymmetric information D. externalities (external effects) 6. The typical broadcasting program choice model, _, highlights various factors that determine the range of programs offered including the structure of viewer preferences among different program types, the number of television channels in existence, the competitive structures of the markets they operate in and the means of support for their services. A. the Beebe model B. competitive duplication C. the law of central tendency D. the Hoteling model of competitive behavior7. In 1848, six New York newspapers formed a cooperative arrangement and founded _, the first major news wire service. It began as commercial organizations that relayed news stories and information around the country and the world using telegraph lines and, later, radio waves and digital transmissions. AReuters BHavas Cthe Associated Press Dthe United Press8. American Antimonopoly laws consist of Sherman Antitrust Act which Congress passes in 1890 that outlaws monopoly practices and corporate trusts that fix prices, Clayton Antitrust Act which Congress strengthens antitrust law in 1914 by prohibiting companies from selling only to dealers who agree to reject rival products, Federal Trade Commission Act, Robinson Patmann Act and The Celler-Kefauver Act In 1950, corporate mergers and joint ventures that reduce competition are limited. At the beginning of 20th century, the federal government uses _ to break up both American Tobacco Co. and Rockefellers Standard Oil Co. into smaller firms. ASherman Antitrust Act BClayton Antitrust Act CRobinson Patmann Act DCeller-Kefauver Act9. Part of Joseph Pulitzers endowment to _ establishes Pulitzer Prizes in 1917, annually awarding achievements in journalism, literature, drama, and music. AMissouri University BColumbia University CNew York University DBoston University10. In economic terms, three common structures characterize the media business: monopoly, oligopoly, and limited competition. A monopoly occurs when a single firm dominates production and distribution in a particular industry, either nationally or locally. At the national level, for example, until the mid-1980s AT&T ran a rare government-approved and regulated monopoly the telephone business. An oligopoly describes an economic situation in which just a few firms dominate an industry. Limited competition, sometimes called monopolistic competition, characterizes a media market with many producers and sellers but only a few differentiable products within a particular category. American book publishing and feature-film businesses are both _.Alimited competition Boligopoly Cmonopoly Dnon-complete monopoly11. With the rise of empirical research techniques, social scientists began demonstrating that the media alone do not cause people to change their attitudes and behaviors. At this point, the limited or _ emerged. Based on tightly controlled experiments and surveys, researchers generally argued that people engage in selective exposure and selective retention with regard to the media.Amagic bullet theory Buses and gratifications model Cminimal-effects model Ddirect effects model12. A mass media phenomenon _ suggests that when the mass media pay attention to particular events or issues, they determine the major topics of discussion for individuals and society. Athe spiral of silence Bsocial learning theory Cthe cultivation effect Dthe agenda-setting13. Persuasive techniques in contemporary advertising include the famous-person testimonial (a product is endorsed by a well-known person), the plain-folks pitch (associating a product with simplicity), the snob-appeal approach (to persuade consumers that using a product will maintain or elevate their social status), the bandwagon effect (in exaggerated claims that everyone is using a particular product), the hidden-fear appeal (playing on consumers sense of insecurity) and _ (creating product-name recognition by being annoying or obnoxious). A. repeated advertising B. obnoxious approach C. annoying advertising D. irritation advertising 14. The most frequent ethical dilemmas encountered in newsroom across the United States involve intentional deception, _, and conflicts of interest. A. ethical predicaments B. false editions C. balance of facts D. privacy invasions15. Cultural research focuses on the investigation of daily experience, especially on issues of race, gender, class, and sexuality, and on the unequal arrangements of power and status in contemporary society. The major analytical approaches to cultural research are textual analysis, _, and political economy. Acultural imperialism studies Bgatekeeper studiesCeffect models Daudience studies16. In the United States, the First Amendment has theoretically prohibited censorship. Over time, Supreme Court decisions have defined censorship as _. This means that courts and governments cannot block any publication or speech before it actually occurs, on the principle that a law has not been broken until an illegal act has been committed.Acopyright Blibel prohibited Cprior restraint Dagainst obscenity Write T in the bracket of the true statement, and F in the bracket of the false one：1. Oligopoly is the most common type of market structure that media firms operate in. （ ）2. Contrary to what is implied by the law of diminishing returns, many media firms tend to enjoy increasing rather than diminishing marginal returns as their output (or, rather, consumption of it) increases.（ ）3. Most firms these days take the form of a public limited company (or plc) and are run by managers rather than by owners (or shareholders). Ownership and control of the firm are therefore separate. （ ）4. The expectation that the behavior or conduct of firms may be determined by the market structures within they operate is formalized in what is called the Structure-Conduct-Performance (SCP) paradigm. The SCP paradigm suggests that market structure (the number of firms, barriers to entry, etc.) will determine how the firms in an industry behavior (e. g. their policies on pricing and advertising) and this conduct will, in turn, determine the performance of the industry in question-i.e. its productive efficiency. This model implies that the fewer firms in a market, the greater the likelihood of collusion, anti-competitive strategies and other inefficiencies. （ ）5. New technologies and liberalizing legislation have done away with some of the conventional entry barriers affecting media markets. The traditional boundaries surrounding media markets are being eroded. At the same time, the emergence of a borderless economy and more international competition has naturally affected media markets and firms across the globe. （ ）6. American TV network own their affiliated stations throughout the country. （ ）7. The rise of competitive dailies and the penny press triggered the significant period of yellow journalism which is generally regarded as the age of sensationalism, the direct forerunner of todays tabloid papers, reality TV, and TV magazines shows like Access Hollywood. During this period, a newspaper circulation war pitted William Randolph Hearsts The New York Journal against Joseph Pulitzers The New York World. A key player in the war was the first popular cartoon strip, “The Yellow Kid,” created in 1895 by artist R. F. Outcault. The phrase yellow journalism has since become associated with the cartoon strip, which shuttled between the Hearst and Pulitzer papers during their furious battle for readers in the mid- to late 1890s. （ ）8. The general aim behind advertising expenditure is to try to increase sales and to reinforce consumers loyalty to particular brands. So, advertising is a form of compete behavior: main tools that firms can use to compete to entice consumers to switch to their own product rather than that of a rival (in addition to making changes to the quality of the product or making adjustments to its price). It undoubtedly helps to create and sustain loyalty to particular brands but it is unable to dictate overall trends in consumer demand, nor can it hope to overcome the influence of technology, fashion or the media on the sorts of products people express a wish for. （ ）9. Advertising generally tak