语法名词解释.docx

英语语法a bar of candy/ golda drop of blooda series of filmsan ear of barleya loaf/ slice of breada band of musiciansa crew of sailorsa flock of birdsa flock of sheepa swarm of waspsa sheet of papera troop/ arm/ batch of soldiersa glass of beera roll/ peal of thundera fit/ peal of laughtera cup of teaa ray of sunshinea bar of chocolatea cake/ bar of soapa drop of oila drop/ bucket of watera cluster/ swarm of antsa stick of chalka grain/ bucket of sanda cup of coffeea bottle/ gill/ pint/ quart of winea display of couragea fit of tempera peal of applausea ray/ flash of lighta display of powera board of directorsa cluster/ bunch of flowersa packet of cigarettesa beach of examinersan army of beggarsa congregation of prayersa staff of teachersa troupe of actors名词解释：Dangling participle:When the subject of participle is not expressed, it is normally to be the subject of the clause. It is usually poor grammar, and sometimes absurd, if this rule is broken: Trying to be quiet, the floor board creaked. But the rule is often broken when the subject is vaguely understood to be “one”, “we”, “you”, people in general.The infinitive:It occurs as a verb in the base form which may go with or without to, the former being called the to-infinitive (or simple called infinitive as the unmarked form of the category), and the latter the bare infinitive (as the marked form of the category).Non-finite verb phrase of clause:A phrase or clause where the main verb occurs in the non-finite form is termed a non-finite phrase or clause. Be-subjunctive:It is formally marked by the use of the base of the verb. That is, the verb invariably occurs in the base form free from the concord constrains with the subject and from the tense agreement with other verbs. The be-subjunctive is further divided into the formulaic subjunctive and the madative subjunctive.The finite clause and non-finite clause: The finite clauses are the ones that have subjects and finite verbs as predicates. The non-finite clauses are the ones that leave subjects unsaid and verbs in non-finite forms.Fronting: Fronting is a term which refers to the removal of an item from its unmarked position to the marked presubject position. Non-gradable adjectives:Non-gradable adjectives are the adjectives acting as attributes (more, latter, indoor, etc), adjectives denoting provenance (British, French, etc.) and adjectives with an absolute meaning (average, excellence, perfect, etc).Collective noun:Collective nouns are generally countable nouns, but even in the singular they refer to groups of people, animals or things, such as family, class, team, government, committee, etc.Central coordinator:Central coordinators are typically used to put together units at the same time syntactic level. They include and, or and but.Mass noun:Those that can not take plural are mass noun, such as butter, cheese, homework music, etc.Plural invariablesThey are 1 names of tools and articles of dress consisting of two equal parts: compasses, jeans, pants, etc.2 Some collective nouns: cattle, people, police, etc.3 Geographical names of mountain ranges, water falls, groups of islands: the Rockies, the Balkans, Niagara Falls, etc.4 Other nouns ending in-s: achieves, arms, etc.AdjunctAn adjunct is a word (often an adverb) or a group of words which we add to a clause to say something about circumstance of an event or situation, for example: when, where or how it occurs.Singular invariable:They are proper nouns like country names and mass nouns like those denoting sciences, subjects, diseases, and games. For example: the United State, the United Nations, Black, Jones, classics, physics, bronchitis, bowls, etc.Antecedent:The antecedent is that preceding item which the relative clause modifies, e.g. in the sentence “Is there something you want to tell me?” something is an antecedent.Morpheme:A morpheme is the minimal distinctive grammatical unit, and is the lowest unit in grammatical hierarchy. Morphemes are actually abstract elements of analysis. What occurs is an orthographic form in writing termed “morph” which realized the morpheme.Double relative clause:Double relative clause is a type of multiple postmodification which is realized by more than one relation clause modifying the same head word. e.g. This is the only book I bought which challenges this common belief.Attributive adjectiveAn attributive adjective refers to an adjective that modifies a noun and stands either before or after the noun in a noun phrase, e.g. in the phrase “an old car”, old in an attributive.Subjunctive moodIt is used to cover all the verb forms that express assumptions contrary to the given fact or not likely to be materialized, and becomes a far less important verbal category than was suggested.Compound sentencesThe compound sentences is a sentence that contains more than clause, usually joined by conjunctions like and, or, but, etc.DeterminerDeterminer refer to words which are used in the premodification of a noun phrase and which typically precede any adjectives that premodify the heat word.简答：1. What are the two major types of alternative questions?They are the type of YES-NO questions, e.g.A: Would you like tea or coffee?B: Tea, please.And the type of WH-questions, e.g.A: What do you like, tea or coffee?B: Tea, please.2. Why do we need to go beyond the sentence and study the text?Because to express a clear and complete idea or thought, we need more than one sentence. It is quite rare that we only use one sentence to express our idea. When an idea or thought is expressed in more than one sentence, we have a text, which relates sentences together. In other words, sentences in text are coherent so that they help each other in expressing a complete idea. The study of the text is to know how sentences can be joined together coherently so that they can best express ideas.3. Explain the syntactic distinction between the predicative and non-predictive use of modal auxiliary with example.The syntactic distinction between the predictive and non-predictive use of modal auxiliary is clear in the following two sentences:! He cant have been there yesterday.2He couldnt be there yesterday.The two sentences reveal two quite different uses of the modal auxiliary. The first sentence, where the predictive cant relates to impossibility and the main verb is marked for past time reference, refers to the speakers present denial of possibility of past event. In the second, the modal auxiliary itself, in non-predictive use, is marked for past tense, referring to lack of ability in the past.4. Whats the function of relative pronoun?The relative pronoun serves as a “link” between the relative clause and its antecedent. It performs two functions: showing concord with its antecedent and indicating its function within the relative clause.5. Provide example to illustrate nominal, verbal and causal ellipsis.1 Nominal ellipsis: Why give me two cups of coffee? I only asked for one.2 Verbal ellipsis: - Have you seen him before? - Yes, I have (seen him before). 3 Clausal ellipsis: - Are you OK? - Yes (I am OK).6. If tense is related to time, what is aspect related to?When tense points to the temporal location of an event or a state of affairs, aspect “reflects the way in which the verb action is regarded or experienced with respect to time”.7. Apart from querying the truth of a statement, what other potential functions can a NO question perform?They may be regarded as the speakers invitations or suggestions, made in a tentative way as they often are, rather than his negative assumptions. They are like imperatives. For examples: Wont you come in? Wont you sit down?They can also be like exclamations: Isnt it lovely? Arent you silly?8. List the type of antecedents?The antecedent is divided into nominal antecedent. Nominal antecedents fall into different subclasses: they may be common nouns or proper nouns, personal pronouns or demonstrative pronouns. Non-nominal antecedent can be subdivided into three types: clause, verb phrase, predictive adjective.9. Provide examples to illustrate result-adjuncts and purpose-adjuncts that are introduced by so that.He worked harder, so that he managed to pass the examinations. (result)He worked harder so that he could pass the examinations. (purpose)10. Provide example to illustrate the three degree of comparison.My bother is as tall as me. (positive degree)My bother is taller than my father. (comparative degree)My bother is the tallest in the family. (superlative degree)11. When the simple present refers to the present time, what are its characteristic uses?When the simple present refers to the present time, it is suitable for the general timeless statements or the expression of so-called “eternal truths”. At the same time, it also denotes the present existence or state of affairs. Besides, it can express regular recurrence such as a habit, and it is also found in the presentation of an event that happens simultaneously with speech.12. Under what general circumstances do we prefer genitive to of-phrase and vice versa.When nouns refer to people, and the relation between the nouns is one of definition, classification, etc., genitives are preferred. When nouns refer to inanimate, lifeless objects, and the head words of noun phrases are classifying adjective, of-phrase are preferred.13. What is the primary of a WH-question?The primary function of a WH-question is to ask for information concerning what, when, why, whose, which and how.14. What are contingency adjuncts? How many types of contingency adjuncts have we recognized?Contingency adjuncts are an adverbial category that includes adjunts denoting some kind of cause-effect relation. They can be divided into subclasses: reason-adjuncts, result-adjunts, purpose-adjunts, concession-adjuncts and condition-adjunts.15. Explain the difference between a double relative clause and an embedded relative clause.In double relative clauses, there are two relatives, one enclosing the other, whereas in embedded relative clause there is only one relative clause which itself is embedded in a clause.16. Provide examples to illustrate some different types of time adjuncts.1 when- adjuncts: soon, on Friday morning, now, etc.2 duration-adjuncts: for ten years, very long, since we met, etc.3 frequency-adjuncts: daily, weekly, often, etc.17. What kind of relative clause do we normally use to modify a non-nominal antecedent? Give some examples.We normally use non-relative clause to modify a non-nominal antecedent.e.g. 1 Her husband is my brother and my wife is her sister, which makes us double in-laws. 2 She dance well, which I dont. 3 Nick is tall, which I will never be.18. Where are given information and the new information located in the sentence.Generally speaking, the given information is offered at the beginning in each sentence while the new information in consistently found in the predicate which normally constitutes the latter half of a sentence.19. Explain the relationship between tense and time.Time and tense are not the same thing: time is concept and tense is a grammatical device. Different tenses can express the same period of time, such as the present.20. What are the two major types of exclamations?The two major types of exclamations are WHAT-exclamations and HOW-exclamations. The former is followed by a noun phrase, the latter is followed by an adjective or adverb.21. What is the pseudo-passive?A pseudo-passive sentences is form but active in meaning. Its ed-participle is adjectival zed so that it becomes a subject complement in the SVC structure. As an adjective, therefore, it can occur in a comparative construction, with a variety of prepositional phrases other than by-phrase, and with other link verbs besides be and get.22. Explain the conditions in which we need to use non-assertive words in positive statements and assertive words in question.When a positive answer expected, assertive words can be used in question, such as: Is there some news for me? Is somebody waiting for me? And in affirmative sentences in which there are if clauses, putative should-clauses, and comparative clauses, non-assertive words can be used, such as: If anyone calls me, it must be John. Its odd that he should say anything like that. He is better than anyone else in this class.23. List the major types of postponement.Postponement is generally realized by active-to-passive transformation, by extra position of a clause element, by discontinuity of adjacent elements.24. Provide example to illustrate reference as realized by pronouns, demonstratives and comparison.1 Reference by pronouns: Look at the man, I think hes the person wanted by the police.2Reference by demonstratives: They finally arrived at an agreement to stop fire. That agreement saved by the country from war.3 Reference by comparison: John is both stupid and lazy. His brother is no better.25. Provide examples to illustrate nominal, verbal and clausal substitution.1 Nominal substitution: I know I need a good car, but I cant afford one.2 Verbal substitution: - Have you finished all the essays? -I have done one.3 Clausal substitution: -Is he the right person for the job? - I suppose so.26. Whats the major function of preposition? And list the two types of preposition.The major function of preposition is connect words of nouns verbs and adjectives to other part of the sentence. We divide preposition into two types: simple preposition and complex preposition.27. Provide examples of partial inversion and complete inversion.Partial inversion: Under no circumstances can you underestimate you rival.Complete inversion: The door burst open and in rushed a large angry crowed.28. What is a unified text?The unified text is one that is not only structurally well-integrated but also semantically coherent.29. As a future time expression, what special meaning does the simple presents impart?When there is something we conceive as unalterable and we can be as confident of as we are of the given facts, we use the simple present to refer to the future time. Something that happens on calendar or timetable falls into this category.30. What are the verbs which transferred negation often occurs with? What is their shared semantic feature?The verbs which transferred negation often occurs with are: think, believe, suppose, imagine and expect. They are the verbs that express “opinion”.31. What are the three principle of concord?The three complementary principles of concord are the grammatical principle, the notional principle and the principle of proximity.32. What order do the different types of place adjuncts follow when they co-occur?When place adjuncts of different types co-occur, they usually follow this order: distance + direction + source + goal + position.33. What are the semantic and functional differences between a prefix and a suffix?The function of a prefix tends to be semantically oriented. That is, it adds new meaning to a base. Most of prefixes do not change word classes while only a few (like a-, be-, em /en-etc.) change word classes. Suffixes are basically class-changing morphemes. They change nouns to verbs, adjectives, or change adjectives to nouns, verbs, or adjectives to adverbs.34. What are the four major types of sentences and what discourse functions are they normally associated with?The four major types of sentences are declaratives, interrogatives imperatives and exclamatives. These four types are respectively associated with giving information, requiring actions and expressing the speakers impression of something.35. Why is the past tense often used for politeness?Because the past tense can make a question or a statement or a suggestion less direct. It is more polite to use the past tense on the part of the speaker.36. Do we always use the singular verb with a clausal subject?No. Generally, a one-clause subject takes the singular verb and a two-clause subjects, the plural verb. The notional principle of concord applies if the context suggests the plurality of a one-clause subject.37. Provide examples to illustrate the three major types of non-finite subordinate clause.1 Infinitive clauses: He didnt know what to do with his enemy.2 -ing participle clauses: she kept nodding her head from time as though understanding every word of his lecture.3 -ed participle clauses: work hard until told to stop.38. What are the typical expressions of the future time?The future time can be expressed by will/ shall do something, he going to do something, present progressive, and simple present.39. What are some of the constraints that the double genitive is subject to?The second noun is the double genitive almost always refers to persons, never to objects. And the first noun usually has indefinite reference (typically premodified by the indefinite article) and the second noun is always definite.40. Distinguish root, stem and base as morphological terms.“Root”, “stem” and “base” may refer to the same thing in same cases, but they are different from each other in that: A root is that part of a word that remains when all affixes haven been removed; A root is not farther analyzable in morphological forms; A stem has to do with inflectional features and is the part that remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed; A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added.41. Explain the principle of proximity of co