working with discourse.docx

SourceOriginal textsComments Textbook: Working with DiscourseChapter1 interpreting social discourse1.1 A framework for discussionIn this book we are concerned with interpreting discourse by analysing it. For us this means treating discourse as more than a sequence of clause; we want to focus on meaning beyond the clause -on resources that lead us from one clause to another as a text unfolds. For us this also means that we treat discourse as more than an incidental manifestation of social activity; we want to focus on the social as it is constructed through texts-on the constitutive role of meanings in social life. In a sense then this book is an invitation to grammarians to reconsider to reconsider meaning in the clause from the perspective of meaning in texts; and it is also an invitation to social theorists to reconsider social activity as meaning we negotiate through texts.本书主要讲述了通过话语分析来进行。我们不应该把话语看做是一系列的句子，关注点应该在句子层面之上即语篇所展示的语源。这也意味着我们不能仅仅把话语看做社会活动的附带显示。话语通过语篇来构造，我们要更加关注话语的社会性。本书是从语篇意义上审议句子意义，也是对社会理论家的一个引导：通过语篇重新审议社会活动。Social discourse rarely consists of just single clauses rather social contaxts develop as sequences of meanings comprising texts. Since each text is produced interactively between speakers, and between writers and(potential) readers, we can use it to interpret the interaction it manifests. And since each interaction is an instance of the speakers culture, we can also use the text to interpret aspects of the culture it manifests.语篇产生于说话者交互性的交谈中。展示了说话者，作者以及读者之间的交互性。我们可以用语篇来说明它的交互性。每一个交互性都是说话者所处文化的例证，因此，我们也可以用语篇来展示它本身所显示出的文化的各方面。Clause - text - cultureHelenas story is one of the texts we use to interpret discourse throughout this book, and we will return to it often, examining its sequences of meanings from different perspectives, to understand just how it manifests the changing culture it is part of.Helena 的故事贯穿于本书之中，用来作为话语分析的例证。从不同的视角监测意义序列，从而理解语篇所显示的变化着的文化。The framework for our discussion is the model of language in social context that has been developed within the broad field of systematic functional linguistics(SFL). SFL researchers have been actively concerned for several generations with the semantics of discourse. And portability is one aim of this book. We want to build up a tool kit for discourse analysis that readers can take away with them when they go. But we will build up this matalinguistic tool kit the way people learn languages, through experiencing meaningful instances in actual texts.我们的讨论框架是已经在系统功能语言学广阔领域中有所发展的社会情景下的语言模型。系统功能语言学研究者们积极关注话语语义的发展。本书的目标是塑造其可携带型。通过在真实语篇下经历有意义的事例通过人们学习语言从而城建一个元语言学的工具箱。To begin with we will briefly introduce two general perspectives for looking at the phenomena of discourse. These two perspectives are:A. Three levels of language: as grammar - as discourse - and as social context(known as the strata of language)B. Three general functions of language in social contexts: to enact our relationships, to represent our experience, and to organise discourse as meaningful text(known as matafunctions).语言的三个层次：语法、话语以及社会环境（语言方面）社会环境下的语言功能：宣布关系，展示经验，组织话语以形成有意义的语篇（元功能方面）In SFL,discourse analysis interfaces with the analysis of grammar and the analysis of social activity - somewhere between the work of grammarians on the one hand and social theorists on the other. Grammarians are particularly interested in types of clauses and their elements. But texts are usually bigger than single clauses, so a discourse analyst has more to worry about than a grammarian(expanded horizons). Discourse analysis employs the tools of grammarians to identify the roles of wordings in passages of text, and employs the tools of social theorists to explain why they make the meanings they do.Discourse nestles within social activity and grammar nestles within discourse, suggesting three complementary perspectives on a single complex phenomenon.在系统功能语言学中，话语分析连接了语法分析以及社会活动分析一方面是文法学家的工作而另外一方面是社会理论学家的工作。文法学家尤其对句子中磊及其元素感兴趣，但是语篇通常要比单独句子大。话语分析运用语法工具识别语篇文章中措辞的角色并且运用社会理论家的工具去解释在社会环境下的意义。社会活动包括话语话语包括语法话语体现在社会活动和语法上。Realisation: culture - meaning - wordingObviously cultures arent just a combination of texts, and likewise texts arent just a combination clauses. Social activity, discourse and grammar are different kinds of phenomena, operating at different levels of abstraction: a culture is more abstract than a text, and the meanings that made up a text are in turn more abstract than the wordings that express them. The relation between these strata is described in SFL as realisation; social contexts are realised as texts which are realised as sequence of clauses.实现：文化-意义-措辞文化不是语篇的集合体，同样地，语篇也不是句子的集合体。社会活动、话语和语法是不同种类的现象。文化比语篇抽象，意义比措辞抽象。这些层面的相互联系在系统功能语言学中被称作实现。社会环境由语篇实现而语篇则是由一系列的句子来实现。语篇是由意义组成，所以分析语篇实际上也是在分析意义。Matafunctions: interpersonal - ideational - textualthe interpersonal matafunction to enact relationships.the ideational metafunction to represent experience.the textual matafunction to organise text.元功能：人际功能、概念功能以及语篇功能人际功能：展现人际关系概念功能: 展现经验语篇功能: 组织语篇These three functions are interwoven with each other, so that we can achieve all three social functions simultaneously. In other words we can look at any piece of discourse from either of these three perspectives, and identify different functions realised by different patterns of meaning.三大功能相互交织，所以我们可以同时完成三种社会功能。也即我们可以从三者中任一角度看话语碎片并且识别由不同意义实现的不同功能。1.2 GenreWe use the term genre in this book to refer to different types of texts that enact various types of social contexts. In contemporary western culture we could name many spoken genres whose patterns of meaning are more or less predictable, such as greetings, service encounters, casual conversations, arguments, telephone enquiries, instructions, lectures, debates, play, jokes, games and so on;In this book we will mainly be exploring written genres that we will name and describe as we go.我们用语类指代展现不同种类社会语境下的不同种类的语篇。在当代西方文化中，有很多口语化的语类，比如，问候语，非正式对话，电话询问，说明，演讲，辩论，戏剧，笑话，游戏等。着重探讨书面语类。For us a genre is a staged, goal oriented social process. Social because we participate in genres with other people; goal oriented because we use genres to get things done; staged because it usually takes us a few steps to reach our goals.语类是阶段性的，具有目标性的社会过程。社会性是因为我们和其他人参与其中。目标性是因为我们用语类去做事。阶段性是因为通常要通过几个步骤完成目标。an exemplum - a kind of moral tale related to fables, parables and gossip.Its social purpose is to present a problematic incident and then interpret it for the audience, commenting on the behavior of the people involved. This story type contrasts with the narrative story type which typically presents a problem which is then resolved by the lead characters.An exemplum consists of the basic stages Orientation, Incident, and Interpretation.说教故事是一种和寓言、谣言相关的道德故事。其社会性目的是展现一个问题并且把它翻译给观众同时评论所涉及人们的行为。这种故事类型和叙事性故事类型形成对比。叙事性故事类型是呈现一个问题由主要角色来解决。一个说教故事包括情况介绍、事件以及解释说明。The stages of a genre are relatively stable components of its organisation, that we can recognise in some form in text after text of the genre - such as the Orientation, Incident and Interpretation stages of an exemplum.An exposition consists of the basic stages Thesis and supporting Arguments. Its social purpose is to persuade an audience to the writers point of view, the thesis. Expositions contrast with the argument genre known as discussion.阐述包括基本阶段、理论和支持论据。它的社会性目的是说服观众站在作者的角度上思考，阐述和论证语类即“讨论”形成对比。1.3In our view ideology and power run through the whole ensemble of language and culture, positioning people within each social context as having more or less power, and opening or narrowing their access to resources for meaning. Of course, up to a point all speakers of a language share an equal range of meaning making resources, but there are also certain varieties of meanings that are not equally distributed. These include resources for engaging in the written discourses of contemporary social institutions, such as sciences, government and education. One important strand of work in SFL has been to provide access to these discourse through literacy pedagogies grounded in discourse analysis. Another strand has been to investigate the principles by which access to meaning is unequally distributed, along the lines of generation, gender, class, incapability and ethnicity.我们认为意识形态和权力贯穿着语言和文化的整体，给每一种社会环境下的人们定位，拓宽或缩小他们通往意义资源的途径。运用到当代社会制度下的书面话语资源包括：科学、政府和教育。系统功能语言学中一条重要的线索是通过建立在话语分析上的文学教育学给话语提供途径。另外一条线路是调查意义途径由隔代、性别、阶级、能力和种族划分而带来不平等分布的原则。One important aspect of evaluation is the source of the opinions.评价的一个重要方面是观点来源。Appraisal - negotiating attitudesAppraisal is concerned with evaluation - the kinds of attitudes that are negotiated in a text, the strength of the feelings involved and the ways in which values are sourced and readers aligned.Appraisal is a system of interpreting meanings. We use the resources of appraisal for negotiating our social relationships, by telling our listeners or readers how we feel about things and people (in a word, what our attitudes are)Attitudes have to do with evaluating things, peoples character and their feelings. Such evaluations can be more or less intense that is they may be more or less amplified. And the attitude may be the writers own or it may be attributed to some other source.评价是一种人际意义系统。我们用评价资源来协商我们的社会关系，告诉读者或者是听众我们对于人和事物的感觉。（也即我们的态度）态度和评价事物、人们的性格以及感受有关。这种评价有张有弛。态度可能是来源于作者本身，也可能来源于其他。Chapter 2 AppraisalSo attitudes are gradable - their volume can be turned up and down depending on how intensely we feel. We will refer to the resources we use to show how strong our reactions are as amplification.One thing we need to consider about attitudes is who theyre coming from.态度是有等级的-根据我们的感受可大可小。我们用详述来显示我们的反应有多大。还有一点，我们要考虑态度来源。So the immediate, intermediate and ultimate source of opinions in discourse is an important variable in discourse that we need to keep track of when analysing evaluations.There are three main types of attitude - expressing emotion, judging character and valuing the worth of things. Technically well refer to resources for expressing feelings as affect, resources for judging character as judgment and resources for valuing the worth of things as appreciation.话语中的直接观点源、简介观点源以及最终观点源在话语中是一个重要的变量，在分析评价时要做好记录。有三种态度类型表达感受、评价性格以及评价事物的价值。在学术上，即是情感、评价以及欣赏。Three kinds of attitudes: affect(peoples feelings), judgment(peoples character) and appreciation(the value of things)Firstly, we can have good feelings or bad feelings - so affect can be positive or negative. Secondly people can express their feelings directly, or we can infer how people are feeling indirectly from their behaviour - so affect can be expressed directly or implied.表达情感有两种。第一，人们有好的感受或不好的感受，所以情感可以是积极的或是消极的。第二，人们可以直接表达他们的感受或者我们可以从他们的行为推断出他们的感受。所以，情感可以被直接表达也可以被暗示。More perhaps than any other family of genres, stories involve us in peoples feelings. We empathise and sympathise with characters as they take part in extraordinary events.Empathise?Interpersonal meanings are often realised not just locally, but tend to sprawl out and color a passage of discourse, forming a prosody of attitude. By looking at phases of attitude, we can explore how readers are being aligned rhetorically as a text unfolds.人际意义通常局域性地被实现，但是现在也有向外蔓延并粉饰整篇话语的趋势，从而形成“态度韵”。通过态度的各阶段，当语篇展开时，我们可以探索读者是如何被修辞性地连成一线。Judging peoples characterAs with affect, judgment of peoples character can be positive or negative, and they may be judged explicitly or implicitly. But unlike affect, we find that judgments differ between personal judgements of admiration or criticism and moral judgments of praise or condemnation. 和情感一样，对于人们性格的评价既可以是积极的也可以是消极的，并且我们既可以明确地进行评价，也可以含蓄的进行评价。个人的赞赏评价或批评评价 和道德的表扬评价跟谴责评价是不同的。As with admiration and criticism, moral judgments can also be made directly or implied.Metaphor also plays a role in judging character.Everyday evaluations of character involving respectability, responsibility, accountability and veracity.道德评价既可以直接表达也可以进行含蓄暗示。隐喻在性格评价方面也起着作用。For certain analytical purposes we might argue that these technical judgments should be left out of an appraisal analysis, since each in a sense refers to an ideational meaning that is precisely situated within legal institutions, rather than an interpersonal meaning like appraisal. But were not sure their technicality totally robs them of their evaluative role - most seem to us to carry with them some of their everyday attitudinal power, certainly for lay readers.基于分析目的，既然每一个评价在一定意义上都指代具有明确合法地位的概念意义，而不是像评价那样的人际意义，那么我们认为这些学术评价可以从评价分析中剔除。Appreciating thingsAppreciation of things includes our attitudes about TV shows, films, books, CDs; about paintings, sculptures, homes, public buildings, parks; about plays, recitals, parades or spectacles and performances of any kind; feelings about nature for that matter - panoramas and glens, sunrises and sunsets, constellations, shooting stars and satellites on a starry night. As with affect and judgment, things can be appreciated positively or negatively.对于事物的鉴赏包括我们对电视节目、电影、书、CD的态度，以及对画作、雕塑、家庭、公共建筑、事物的感受和情感。跟评价一样，鉴赏既可以是积极的，也可以是消极的。Relationships and qualities of life are abstract sorts of things but can be evaluated as things nevertheless.生活中的关系和质量是抽象的，但可以被评价为事物。Amplifying the force of attitudesWe can begin with words that amplify the force of attitudes, such as very/really/extremely. These kinds of words are known as intensifiers.Intensifiers make it possible for us to compare things - to say how strongly we feel about someone or something, by comparison to something else.像very、really、extremely这样的词，我们称之为强度修饰语。通过对比，可以说出我们对于人和事物的感受。There are also several other areas of meanings that involve grading - for example quantity, manner and modality.意义：数量、方式、形态。Next lets examine vocabulary items that include degrees of intensity, such as happy/delighted/ecstatic. These kinds of words are known as attitudinal lexis -ie. lexis with attitude. The intensifiers we have already looked at, like better/best, all/several/some, must/would/might, are grammatical items. That is their meaning depends on being combined with content words. By contrast,content words are referred to technically as lexical items, or simply lexis.像快乐、满意、狂喜这样的词被称作是态度词汇。我们所见过的强度修饰语例如better。是语法项即它们的意义跟它们组合的实词有关。实词在学术上指词条或简单词。So we can score various genres on how much amplification they are likely to display: narratives tend to amplify most, expositions less so, and administrative genres like Act amplify very little.Another feature of certain genres is that grading is erased when we technicalise attitude.我们可以根据不同语类所展现出的详尽程度进行评价。记叙详尽程度最高，阐述次之而法案最少。某些语类的另一个特征是当我们对态度进行技术化时，语类的等级就消失了。To sum up then, amplifying attitude involves a set of resources for adjusting how strongly we feel about people and things. Technically we refer to these resources as force. We use them to turn the volume up or down. Grading experiential boundaries involves resources that sharpen or blur apparently categorical distinctions. Technically these resources are referred to as focus.态度的放大跟我们对于人和事物感受强烈的调节有关。在技术上，我们称之为Force（语势）。经验界限的等级划分包括加重或淡化种类差异，学术上我们称之为focus.(聚焦)The French discourse analyst Kristeva introduced the term hetroglossia(different voices) for this notion of multiple voicing in all kinds discourse. Here we will use the term heterogloss where the source of an attitude is other than the writer, and monogloss(single voice) where the source is simply the author.One thing we are able to do in discourse is quote or report what people say or think. Halliday calls this type of linguistic resource projection.我们在话语中能做的是引用或报导人们所说所想。Halliday 把这种语言学源叫做projection(投射) 法国话语分析家Kristeva 引入了heteroglossia（多声借言）这个概念。Heteroglossia-态度源不仅仅是作者。Monogloss-态度源是作者。Projection may quote the exact words that someone and in which case speech marks are usually used in writing.Projection doesnt just happen within sentences, from saying to what is said. It can also happen across whole texts and text phases.Projections can also be found within clauses, where they explicitly assign responsibility for opinions to sources.投射会引用某人所说的准确话语，“话语标记”通常应用于写作中。Projection 不仅仅出现在句子里，它可以贯穿于整个语篇和语篇短语。也可以出现在小句中，在小句中projection 可以把意见的责任付诸于信息源。In spoken discourse speakers might use special intonation or voice quality to signal projection of this kind, and sometimes people use gesture to mimic quotation marks - acting out the special punctuation. The effect of this is to disown the evaluation embodied in the highlighted terms, attributing it to an alternative, unspecified, but usually recoverable source.在口语话语中，说话者也许会用特殊的语调或音色去标记投射，有时候人们也用手势模仿引用符号-展示出特有的停顿。这样做的效果是否认了被强调术语所显示出的评价而把它归因于一种可选择的、未指明的但是通常可恢复的信息源。Alongside projection, another way of introducing additional voices into a text is via modality. Holliday(1994) describes modality as a resource which sets up a semantic space between yes and no - a cline running between positive and negative poles. There are two general kinds of modality, one for negotiating services, and the other for negotiating information. 另外一种把画外音加入语篇的是modality(情态)。Halliday 认为情态是一种建立在YES和NO之间的语义空间，是正负两极的渐变群。有两种情态，一种是为谈判服务，另外一种是提供谈判信息。At each pole of these scales of modality is the choice of positive or negative polarity. As weve said, modality can be used as a resource for introducing additional voices into a text, and this includes polarity.情态可以作为资源把话外音引入语篇，包括极性。Negation of this kind is a feature of persuasive writing where contesting positions need to be addressed and set aside.Modality can be interpreted as a resource for grading polarity - for setting up degrees of positivity and negativity(an intermediate space between yes and no)Five types of modality discussed by Halliday -usuality, probability, obligation, inc