AP Environmental Science Study Outline.docx

AP Environmental Science Study OutlineKui Tang & Jiahang Zou(中文注解)August， 2008Renewed in March, 2011编者按：本文是08年本校某学长根据 College Board 的 Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet by Botkin and Keller, 6th edition 所整理的提纲。原文为PDF，由于要增加注解注释并补充review book 里的其他精髓，不得不用word进行编辑。在转换格式过程中排版和拼写均出现了很多问题，请各位指正。另外本文由于是ouline，所以在语法上有大量的省略.你懂的红笔处表示有疑问。请诸位帮助解答。附：这种拼命翻译查资料注解看书的事情真的不是人干的所以请脑子正常的孩子千万不要模仿。OverThis guide follows the College Boards Topic Outline. Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet by Botkin and Keller, 6th edition, was the main source for these notes.Contents1 Earth Systems and Resources 21.1 Earth Science Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2 The Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.3 Global Water Resources and Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.4 Soil and Soil Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 The Living World 82.1 Ecosystem Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82.2 Energy Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112.3 Ecosystem Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112.4 Natural Ecosystem Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122.5 Natural Biogeochemical Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Populations 143.1 Population Biology Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143.2 Human Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153.2.1 Human Population Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153.2.2 Population Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153.2.3 Impacts of Population Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Land and Water Use 164.1 Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164.1.1 Feeding a Growing Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164.1.2 Controlling Pests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184.2 Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184.3 Rangelands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194.4 Other Land Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194.4.1 Urban Land Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194.4.2 Transportation Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214.4.3 Public and Federal Lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224.4.4 Land Conservation Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224.4.5 Sustainable Land-Use Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224.5 Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224.6 Fishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254.7 Global Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Energy Resources and Consumption 265.1 Energy Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265.2 Energy Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275.2.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275.2.2 Present Global Energy Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275.2.3 Future Energy Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285.3 Fossil Fuel Resources and Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285.4 Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295.5 Hydroelectric Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325.6 Energy Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335.7 Renewable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 Pollution 366.1 Pollution Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366.1.1 Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366.1.2 Noise Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416.1.3 Water Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426.1.4 Solid Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456.2 Impacts on the Environment and Human Health . . . . . . . . . 496.2.1 Hazards to Human Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496.2.2 Hazardous Chemicals in the Environment . . . . . . . . . 506.3 Economic Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517 Global Change 527.1 Stratospheric Ozone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527.2 Global Warming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547.3 Loss of Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577.3.1 Habitat loss; overuse; pollution; introduced species; endangered and extinct species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577.3.2 Maintenance Through Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . 587.3.3 Laws and Treaties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58页码不对了不用看了1 Earth Systems and Resources1. Average Residence Time (ART): ratio of size of reservoir(汇集地) to rate of transfer through reservoir:ART = S/FWhere S is size of reservoir and F is rate of transfer.以上是关于河流的停留问题1.1 Earth Science Concepts1. Lithosphere（岩石圈） is crust.2. Geological cycles include(a) Tectonic（板块构造）: can create ecological（生态） islands.i. Divergent plates boundaries（离散板块边界） occur at a spreading oceannridge （脊）(seafloor spreading).ii. Convergent plate（聚合板块） boundaries occur when plates collide.（相撞）A. Subduction（俯冲板块） is the heavy ocean rock diving beneath the light continental rock. May produce coastal mountain ranges (Andes安第斯山脉).B. Continental collisions（大陆碰撞） may produce continental mountains.iii. Transform fault（转换断层） boundaries occur when one plate slides（滑过）past another.(b) Hydrologic（水循环）(c) Rock(d) Biogeochemical（生物地球化学.）3. Earthquake occurs when tectonic plates （地壳构造板块）under pressure rupture, releasing huge amounts of energy (more than a large nuclear explosion), usually at 1015 km along faults（断层）.(a) Fault planes（断层面） bar groundwater. Rocks crushed, and then altered into clay. Water forced to surface, creating vital（维持生命所必需的） habitats, especially where arid（干旱的）.4. Volcanic eruption occurs when magma（岩浆） rises to the surface. Energy released varies broadly（宽广的）. Volcanoes occur along tectonic plate boundaries, where active melting of rocks favors extrusion（喷出） of magma, or along central parts of plates where local hot spots heat and melt rock.5. Tsunami is a series of large waves produced after the vertical disturbance of ocean. 80% are produced by earthquakes. They travel at jet aircraft speeds but slow and get taller as they approach the surface.1.2 The Atmosphere1. Composition is 78% N2, 21% O2, 0.9% Ar, 0.03% CO2.2. Structure in order is: troposphere（对流层）, tropopause（对流顶层） (condensation traps water vapor), stratosphere （平流层）(O3), stratopause（平流层顶）, mesosphere（中间层）, mesopause（中间层顶）, thermosphere.（热成层）1、对流层(troposphere)：高度地面到对流层顶温度随高度增加而降低铅直混合强；气象要素水平分布不均匀。温度平均递减率6.5K/km,最低-50-70度。集中了大气质量的3/4和几乎全部水汽。主要天气现象和过程都发生在这一层。当温度平均递减率2K/km的最低高度，规定为对流层顶层,其高度随季节和纬度而变化。低纬1520km，极地和温带812km。2、平流层(stratosphere)：对流层顶到50km左右。温度低层无变化，上部随高度增加明显增高。上界温达0摄氏度，最高温可达7摄氏度。几乎无天气现象，由于尘埃很少，大气透明度很高。（臭氧）3、中间层(mesosphere)：平流层顶到8085km。温度随高度增加降低，到层顶降到-90oC。是大气最冷的部分。水汽极少，但高纬黄昏前后偶尔存在夜光云。强烈铅直运动。4、暖层、热成层(thermosphere)：中层顶到800km。温度随高度而增加。小于0.17m紫外线几乎全被该层吸收。温度达1000k以上。温度日变化显著，还受太阳活动影响。高纬度出现极光现象。5、 散逸层(ionosphere)：800km以上。3. 25% of incoming solar radiation rejected straight into space, 25% absorbed by atmosphere.4. Atmospheric circulation: (1) rotation and (2) differential heating.（差温加热）(a) Low pressure at equator, 5060度.(b) High pressure from descending air 2530度 arid. Sandwiched between two zones of high precipitation（降水量） (low pressure).(c) Easterlies（东风带） at poles and Westerlies（西风带） from 3060度 meet at 60度.(d) Trade winds blow to west; meet at equator, where doldrums（赤道无风带） occur(Regions with little air movement).5. El Nio events (also ENSO) occur every 27 years, lasting for 1-1.5years.East-west trade winds weaken and eastern Pacific waters warm! Tropical rainfall shifts from Indonesia to South America. Floods in Peru; droughts and fires in Indonesia and Australia. Upwelling at South American coastline is suppressed. Natural.1ENSO，ElNino、南方涛动和LaNina定义(Definition of ENSO)：ENSO是厄尔尼诺(ElNino)和南方涛动（SouthernOscillation）的合称，二者有非常好的相关关系。当赤道东太平洋表层水温（SST）正距平，南方涛动指数往往是负。ENSO成为大尺度海气相互作用以及气候变化研究的中心课题。厄尔尼诺ElNino：圣诞前后，沿厄瓜多尔和秘鲁沿岸，出现一弱的洋流，代替了通常对应的冷水。近年指一种更大尺度的海洋异常现象，整个赤道东太平洋表现振幅达几摄氏度的增暖。与此相联系，海洋和大气环流发生很大的异常。(a) La Nia opposite; exaggerate normal patterns.6. Tornadoes are funnel-shaped clouds of rapidly rotating wind. They form out of severe （严重的）thunderstorms that occur when a cold air mass collides（相撞） with a warm one. Water vapor in the warm part is forced upwards, cools, then precipitates（沉淀，下降）.7. Hurricanes are tropical storm with circulating winds of at least 120 km/h that moves across tropical ocean.(a) An organized mass of thunderstorms with low pressure begin to circulate, forming a tropical depression.(b) Huge amounts of energy are stored as latent（潜伏的）heat-vaporization. Condensation （液化）releases this energy, warming air. As this air rises, more water is drawn, increasing the size of the hurricane.(c) Rain bands form as the warm air rises.(d) Nearing landfall, hurricanes may slow down in shallower water, but warm water increases intensity.(e) Storm surges（风暴潮） occur when the hurricane winds push water towards the coast, which may rise to be over 10 m and may be exacerbated（恶化） by high tide.8. Heat waves are extended（延长的） periods of unusually hot weather caused by heating of atmosphere and moving of air masses. They are considered most deadly of all weather-related hazards. Global warming may have increased their severity and incidence.9. Droughts are long-term (months to years) periods of usually dry weatherthat are related to natural cycles of wet and dry years, which in turn arenot well understood.10 Coriolis effect （科里奥效应）is apparent（明显的） deflection（偏转） of moving objects when viewed from a rotating frame（构架） of reference.从热带向北流动的一阵风或一般海流，起初随着地球的 旋转，从西向东转动得非常快。当它向北流动时，它保持着 它的速度，而地表的运动速度却越来越小。因此，风或海流 就会超过地表，并且越来越向东沿着曲线前进。最后，风或 海流就在北半球顺时针方向划一个大圆圈，而在南半球则反 时针方向划一个大圆圈。 正是这种造成曲线运动的科里奥利效应，在更加集中 （因而更加有力）时，就会形成飓风，如果还要更加集中和 更加有力，就会形成龙卷风。 科里奥利力（Coriolis force)，是地球自转偏向力，指的是由于地球沿着其倾斜的主轴自西向东旋转而产生的偏向力，使得在北半球所有移动的物体包括气团等向右偏斜，而南半球的所有移动物体向左偏斜的现象。(a) Free objects on surface appear to go right in Northern hemisphereand left in southern.(b) Air and water flows right in north, left in south.(c) Responsible for cyclones.（气旋，飓风）1.3 Global Water Resources and Use1. Groundwater is water below the water table（地下水面）, which is saturated（饱和的，被充满的）. 20%.(a) Surface water enters at recharge and exit at discharge zones.(b) Vadose（渗流的） zone is unsaturated area above water table where water moves.(c) Aquifer（地下蓄水层，砂石含水层） is underground zone where water can be extracted at a useful rate. Gravel（沙砾） or sand.(d) Cone of depression occurs where well is: water level is locally lower (e) Effluent（流出的） streams maintain flow during dry weather by groundwater seepage（渗，流） (they are below water table). Most perennial streams are effluent.(f) Influent（流入的） streams are entirely above water table; flows only in response to precipitation（降水）. Called ephemeral stream（季节性河流）.(g) Reaches（河段） are sections of a stream that may be effluent, influent, or intermediate.(h) Though reserves are huge (conservatively 200 years of Mississippi flow), pumping costs limit amount that can be economically recovered.i. Overdraft（透支） occurs when withdrawal rate natural inflow（流入量）.ii. Essentially（本质上） nonrenewable（不可恢复的） because it can （箭头） damage ecosystems, land subsidence（下沉）.iii. Texas-Oklahoma-High Plains area (Ogallala（奥加拉拉） aquifer（地下蓄水层）): prime example. Used 20 times faster than being renewed.2. Surface and ground-water related:(a) Use groundwater 箭头 decrease surface levels(b) Divert（转移） surface water 箭头 decrease ground levels and quality OR increase pollutants（表面积） if divert to recharge zone. Pollution interrelated（相互关联） too3. Ocean circulation(a) “Oceanic conveyor（传送者） belt”: (Gulf Stream) water 1213 C arrives at Greenland. Cooled and became more saline（含盐） in North America (24 C), sinks to bottom. Flows south, east, north into Pacific. Up-welling starts warm shallow（浅的） current. Keeps N. Europe 510 C cooler. (b) Forces include: rotation, wind, temperature and salinity differences, gravity of moon.4. Only 50% of precipitation is considered available 95% of the time.5. Desalination（脱盐作用） will remain expensive because it has place value: it is very expensive to transport water. (a) Discharge of brine waste may damage ecosystems.6. Stream usage(a) Off-stream use is removal and return (power plant).(b) Consumptive（消费性） use is not returned (drinking, irrigation（灌溉）).(c) In-stream use uses the stream itself or modifies(更改 it. Each use requires different rates of discharge（释放，流出） that cannot be met simultaneously（同时的）.i. Hydroelectric（水力发电） power prefers large fluctuations(起伏现象). ii. Fish and wildlife prefer larger flows in spring and summer, as does recreation.iii. Navigation prefers constant flow.(d) Aral（碱海） Sea demonstrates that removing too much water is deleterious（有害的） to ecosystems. The sea area has been reduced by 40%, volume by 50%. Economically important fish are dying, and fishing towns bordering the sea are now inland. Restoration just beginning.7. Industrial and domestic use (U.S.)(a) Agriculture, industry began leveling off around 1980. Suggests conservation（保护性） working.(b) Water for public supply continues to increase.8. Conservation expects to reduce total withdrawals yet allow consumption to increase.(a) Agriculture can reduce 2030%:i. Dont subsidize（补贴） water.ii. Integrate（融入） surface and groundwater use: use store surface water (infiltration（渗透） pool or injection well) when abundant, groundwater when not.iii. Use high-tech to maximize delivery efficiency. Irrigate（灌溉） when evaporation is minimal. Use improved irrigation (drip).iv. Improve soil: 增加 infiltration（渗透）, 减少runoff（溢流）.v. Use crops that require less water or are more salt-tolerant（耐盐的）.(b) Domestic use is only 10%, but concentrated in urban. i. Dont do lawns（草坪） in semi-arid regions!ii. Use efficient bathroom fixtures. 1.6 gpf instead of 5.0.iii. Utilities should price water based on non-linear curve to encourage consumption.(c) Industry can reduce electricity generating water 25_30% by using low water/no water evaporation tower, in-plant water reuse.(d) Perception impacts peoples attitudes toward water conservation.i. Tucson（大名鼎鼎的死人的图森.）: people think its desert; conserve. Water expensive. For example, price per unit increases if usage increases past baseline.ii. Phoenix: water cheap; people dont bother conserving.9. In wet years, plenty of surface water, and groundwater is recharged. Dry years, need emergency plans to minimize hardship:(a) Plan to drill and connect wells for deep groundwater, even though too expensive to normally use.(b) Prepare to treat waste water for reuse when needed.1.4 Soil and Soil Dynamics1. Rock Cycle(a) Igneous rock（火成石） forms from lava. Cracking, weathering split.(b) Sedimentary rock（水成石） forms from pressure of lots of sediment: deposition（沉积） + lithification（岩化）.i. Weathered rock.ii. Carbon sediments by life.(c) Metamorphic rock（变质岩） forms from sedimentary rocks transformed through heat, pressure, or chemicals. May be uplifted into open.2. Soils are earth materials modified by physical, geological, and biological processes into horizons:(a) O: black organic layer. Decomposing（分解） stuff.(b) White powderbleached of organic compounds.(c) A: mineral and organic. Brown/light-black. Minerals leach here.(d) E: lighter-colored because clay, minerals leached.(e) B: zone of accumulation（堆积） (of leached（过滤） stuff above).(f) C: parent materialpartially weathered bedrock（基岩）.2. Rainwater (pH = 5.5) leaches minerals.4. Soil fertility（肥力）(a) Young rocks fertile: corn belt（大农业地带） (recent glacier).(b) Semiarid（半干旱） regions fertile; need water.(c) Humid areas/tropics infertile（贫瘠的）: leaching due to rainfall. Most nutrients in vegetation. Succession difficult if forest cleared.5. Semiarid soils expand and contract（与.有关） with water. Damage buildings.6. Clay holds water. Sand allows water to drain（流尽）. Combination retains water enough for growth but still drains. Coarse soils（粗制土） more easily eroded（缺刻状的）.7. Loams（壤土） are best soils; have all particle sizes.8. Landslides（滑坡） occur when driving forces (gravity) that tend to move soil and things in the soil down a slope overcome resisting forces that hold the ground in place (interlocking（联锁的） grains, natural cementing（粘合物）, plant roots, strength of materials on slope). Addition of water or removal of vegetation reduces resisting forces. Some landslides are reactivations（再生） of prehistoric（史前的） slides ; these areas repeatedly experience landslides (see La Conchita). (a) In mountains, create lakes by damming valleys.9. Floodplain（泛滥平原） is river and flatland draining（排泄） into it. Naturally, floods annually.(a) Deposit（放置） nutrients on floodplain.(b) Wetlands provide habitat.(c) Floodplain is distinct from adjacent（邻近的） environments 箭头 diversity.2 The Living World2.1 Ecosystem Structure1. Ecosystem is the simplest entity（实体） that can sustain（支撑） life. Support chemical cycling and energy flow.2. Habitat is where a species lives; niche（小生态环境） is what it does.(a) Conservation（环境保护） requires paying attention to both, as well as obligate symbionts（考性共生物）.(b) Predation（捕食） can increase diversity by mitigating（减轻） competitive exclusion（排他性）.3. Watershed（分水岭） definition of ecosystem: delineated（描绘） by land that drains intosame stream.4. Comm