INDOOR environmental health 专业外文翻译.doc

建环专业外文文献翻译Indoor Environmental Health Indoor environmental health comprises those aspects of human health and disease that are determined by factors in the indoor environment. It also refers to the theory and practice of assessing and controlling factors in the indoor environment that can potentially affect health. The practice of indoor environmental health requires consideration of chemical, biological, physical and ergonomic hazards. 室内环境健康包括那些方面的人类健康和疾病是由室内的因素决定的environment. It also refers to the theory and practice of assessing and controlling factors in the indoor environment that can potentially affect health. The practice of indoor environmental health requires consideration of chemical, biological, physical and ergonomic hazards.环境。它也指的是理论和实践的评估和室内环境的控制性因素，可能会影响健康。室内环境健康的实践需要考虑化学，生物，物理和符合人体工程学的危害 It is essential for engineers to understand the fundamentals of indoor environmental health because the design, operation, and maintenance of buildings and their HVAC systems significantly affect the health of building occupants. In many cases,buildings and systems can be designed and operated to reduce the exposure of occupants to potential hazards. Unfortunately, neglecting to consider indoor environmental health can lead to conditions that create or worsen those hazards. 工程师要了解基本是必不可少的室内环境健康因为设计，操作，和建筑和HVAC系统的维护明显影响建筑物的居住者的健康。在许多情况下，建筑和系统的设计和操作，减少人员暴露于潜在危险。不幸的是，没有考虑室内环境健 BACKGROUND背景 The most clearly defined area of indoor environmental health is occupational health, particularly as it pertains to workplace airborne contaminants. Evaluation of exposure incidents and laboratory studies with humans and animals have generated reasonable consensus on safe and unsafe workplace exposures for about 1000 chemicals and particles. Consequently, many countries regulate exposures of workers to these agents. However, chemical and dust contaminant concentrations that meet occupational health criteria usually exceed levels found acceptable to occupants in nonindustrial spaces such as offices, schools, and residences, where exposures often last longer and may involve mixtures of many contaminants and a less robust population (e.g., infants, the elderly,and the infirm) (NAS 1981). 室内环境健康最明确的地区是职业健康，特别是因为它涉及到工作场所空气中的污染物。曝光事件和实验室研究与人类和动物的评价产生的安全和不安全的工作场所暴露约1000化学品和颗粒合理的共识。因此，许多国家规定工人这些药物暴露。然而，化学和粉尘污染浓度符合职业卫生标准通常高于发现在非工业场所如办公室，学校，住宅，居住者在可接受的水平，风险往往持续时间较长，可能涉及许多污染物的混合物和一个不太可靠的人口（例如婴幼儿，老年人，和体弱者）（NAS 1981）。 Operational definitions of health, disease, and discomfort are controversial (Cain et al. 1995). However, the most generally accepted definition is that in the constitution of the World Health Organization (WHO): “Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.” 健康，疾病和不适的操作性定义，是有争议的（该隐等人。1995）。可是，最普遍认可的定义是：世界卫生组织（WHO“健康是一个完整的身体、良好的社会适应能力和良好的心理的组合而并非只是没有疾病或虚弱。 Definitions of comfort also vary. Comfort encompasses perception of the environment (e.g., hot/cold, humid/dry, noisy/quiet,bright/dark) and a value rating of affective implications (e.g., too hot, too cold). Rohles et al. (1989) noted that acceptability may represent a more useful concept of evaluating occupant response,because it allows progression toward a concrete goal. Acceptability is the foundation of a number of standards covering thermal comfort and acoustics. Nevertheless, acceptability varies between climatic regions and cultures, and may change over time as expectations change. 定义的舒适性也有所不同。舒适性包括环境感知（例如，热/冷，湿/干，吵/安静，亮/暗）和情感意义的价值等级（例如，太热，太冷）。rohles等人。（1989）指出，感知可能是一个更有用的评价乘员响应的概念，因为它允许对一个具体的目标的进展。感知是以一系列的热舒适和声音的标准为基础。不过，在不同气候区域与文化间，感知可能随预期的改变而发生变化。 Concern about the health effects associated with indoor air dates back several hundred years, and has increased dramatically in recent decades. This attention was partially the result of increased reporting by building occupants of complaints about poor health associated with exposure to indoor air. Since then, two types of diseases associated with exposure to indoor air have been identified: sick building syndrome (SBS) and building-related illness (BRI). 关于室内空气对健康的影响的关注可以追溯到几百年，近几十年来也大大增加。尤其注意的是增加的住户健康不佳与暴露于室内空气相关的投诉的报告结果。此后，两类与暴露于室内空气引起的疾病已经确定：疾病大厦综合征（SBS）和建筑相关疾病（BRI）。 SBS describes a number of adverse health symptoms related to occupancy in a “sick” building, including mucosal irritation, fatigue,headache, and, occasionally, lower respiratory symptoms and nausea. There is no widespread agreement on an operational definition of SBS. Some authors define it as acute discomfort (e.g., eye, nose,or throat irritation; sore throat;headache; fatigue; skin irritation;mild neurotoxic symptoms; nausea; building odors) that persists for more than two weeks at frequencies significantly greater than 20%;with a substantial percentage of complainants reporting almost immediate relief upon exiting the building. SBS介绍一些在被称为“生病”的相关的不良健康症状，包括粘膜刺激，疲劳，头痛，和，偶尔，下呼吸道症状和恶心。在SBS的业务上的定义没有达成共识。有些作者把它定义为急性不适（例如，眼睛，鼻子，或喉咙发炎；喉咙痛；头痛；疲劳；皮肤刺激性；轻度神经毒性症状；恶心；建筑的气味），持续超过两周的频率显着大于20%；有相当比例的投诉报告几乎立刻在退出。 The increased prevalence of health complaints among office workers is typical of sick building syndrome (Burge et al. 1987;Skov and Valbjorn 1987). Widespread occurrence of these symptoms has prompted the World Health Organization to classifySBS into several categories (Morey et al. 1984): 在办公室工作人员健康的投诉率增加是典型的疾病大厦综合征（Burge等人。1987和1987）；valbjorn SKOV。这些症状普遍发生，促使世界卫生组织把SBS分几类（莫雷等人。1984）： Sensory irritation in the eyes, nose, or throat眼睛，鼻子和喉咙过敏 Skin irritation皮肤过敏 Neurotoxic symptoms神经毒性症状 Odor and taste complaints嗅觉味觉过敏 Sick building syndrome is characterized by an absence of routine physical signs and clinical laboratory abnormalities. The term nonspecific is sometimes used to imply that the pattern of symptoms reported by afflicted building occupants is not consistent with that for a particular disease. Additional symptoms can include nosebleeds, chest tightness, and fever.Some investigations have sought to correlate SBS symptoms with reduced neurological and physiological performance. In controlled studies, SBS symptoms can reduce performance in susceptible individuals (Mlhave et al. 1986).Building-related illnesses, in contrast, have a known origin, may have a different set of symptoms, and are often accompanied by physical signs and abnormalities that can be clinically identified with laboratory measurements. For example, hypersensitivity illnesses, including hypersensitivity pneumonitis, humidifier fever,asthma, and allergic rhinitis, are caused by individual sensitization to bioaerosols. 疾病大厦综合征的特征是缺乏常规的体征和临床实验室检查异常。这个术语有时用来表明非特异性的症状困扰住户的模式是不一致的，对于一个特定的疾病。其他症状包括胸闷，发热流鼻血了，一些研究寻找相关。SBS神经生理表现症状与减少。在症状控制领域，SBS症状可以减轻敏感个人 (Mlhave 等人. 1986)，与建筑有关的疾病，。”，有可能会有不同的起源，往往建立症状，伴随着异常体征是临床和实验室测量。比如，包括过敏性肺炎，过敏症毛病，湿热症包括，气喘，和过敏性鼻炎，是由于个人对于空气中的病毒、细菌、花粉等生物气胶的过敏造成的。 Iiinesses associated with exposure in indoor environments are listed in Table 1. Laboratory testing and development of linkages should be performed under direction of a qualified health care professional. 与室内环境的接触有关疾病都列在表1。实验室检测和关联开展应当在具备保健资格的专业机构里进行。DESCRIPTIONS OF SELECTED HEALTH SCIENCES健康科学之阐述 The study of health effects in indoor environments includes a number of scientific disciplines. A few are briefly described here to further the engineers understanding of which health sciences may be applicable to a given environmental health problem.Epidemiology and Biostatistics Epidemiology studies the cause, distribution, and control of disease in human and animal populations. It represents the application of quantitative methods to evaluate health-related events and effects. Epidemiology is traditionally subdivided into observational and analytical components; the focus may be descriptive, or may attempt to identify causal relationships. Some classical criteria for determining causal relationships in epidemiology are consistency,temporality, plausibility, specificity, strength of association, and dose/response. 室内环境中的健康效应的研究包括许多科学领域。一些简要介绍是为了工程师的进一步的理解，健康科学，可以适用于一个给定的环境健康问题。流行病学生物流行病学研究导致分配，和，人与动物疾病的控制。代表计量方法在事件影响的评估与健康相关适用。流行病学是传统上分为观察和分析组成；重点可能是描述性的，或试图找出因果关系。一些经典的标准确定因果关系的流行病学是一致性，时间性，合理性，特异性，关联强度，剂量/反应。 Observational epidemiology studies are generally performedwith a defined group of interest because of a specific exposure or risk factor. A control group is selected on the basis of similar criteria, but without the exposure or risk factor present. A prospective study (cohort study) consists of observations of a specific group.Examples of epidemiological investigations are ross-sectional,experimental, and case-control studies. Observations conducted at one point in time are considered cross-sectional studies. In experimental studies, individuals are selectively exposed to a specific agent or condition. These studies are performed with the consent of he participants unless the condition is part of the usual working condition and it is known to be harmless. Control groups must be observed in parallel. Case-control studies are conducted by identifying individuals with the condition of interest and comparing factors of interest in individuals without that condition. 观察性流行病学研究通常由一组定义的兴趣因为特定风险因素。对照组是类似的准则的基础上选定的，但没有暴露或存在危险因素。一项前瞻性研究（队列研究）是由一组特定的观察。流行病学调查的例子是罗斯分，实验，和病例对照研究。在一个时间点的观测被认为是横断面研究。在实验研究中，个体有选择地暴露在一个特定的代理或条件。进行这些研究参与者与他同意，除非条件是平常工作的一部分情况这是无害。应在平行对照。病例对照研究是通过识别个人利益的条件和比较感兴趣的个人因素没有条件进行。Industrial Hygiene Industrial hygiene is the science of anticipating, recognizing,evaluating, and controlling workplace conditions that may cause worker illness or injury. Important aspects of industrial hygiene include identifying toxic exposures and physical stressors, determining methods for collecting and analyzing contaminant samples,evaluating measurement results, and developing control measures.Industrial hygienists also create regulatory standards for the work environment, prepare programs to comply with regulations, and collaborate with epidemiologists in studies to document exposures and potential exposures to help determine occupation-related illness.劳动卫生 劳动卫生是科学预测，识别，评估和控制工作场所的条件，可能导致工人生病或受伤。工业卫生的重要方面，包括识别有毒物质和身体的压力，确定收集和分析污染物样品的方法，评价测量结果，并制定控制措施。工业卫生创建工作环境的监管标准，编制程序符合规定，并在研究合作文件暴露的流行病学家和潜在的风险，以帮助确定与职业有关的疾病。Microbiology and Mycology Microbiology studies microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites; mycology is a subspecialty that focuses on fungi. Environmental microbiologists and mycologists investigate the growth, activity, and effect of microorganisms found innature, many of which can colonize and grow in buildings and building systems. Important aspects of environmental microbiology and mycology are identification of populations of contaminant microorganisms in buildings; determination of methods of collection of air,water, and surface samples; and evaluation of results of microbiological measurements. Effective, practical, and safe disinfection practices are usually developed and validated by microbiologists and mycologists.微生物学、真菌学 微生物学专业微生物群，包括细菌病毒，真菌，寄生虫，；是重点专科真菌学真菌。环境微生物学家和真菌学家研究生长，活性，影响微生物的发现中，其中许多可以殖民和在建筑物和建筑系统的成长。环境微生物学、真菌学的重要方面是建筑中的污染物的微生物种群的鉴定；对收集的空气测定方法，水，和表面的微生物样品；测量结果与评价。有效的，实用的，安全的消毒的做法通常是开发和验证的微生物学家和真菌学家。 Aerobiology is the study of airborne microorganisms or other biologically produced particles, and the effects of these aerosols (bioaerosols) on other living organisms. The section on Bioaerosols has more information on these contaminants. 生物学是空气中的微生物或其他生物产生的粒子的研究，以及这些影响气溶胶（气溶胶）对其他生物。对生物气溶胶的部分对这些污染物的更多信息。生物学是空气中的微生物或其他生物产生的粒子的研究，以及这些影响气溶胶（气溶胶）对其他生物。对生物气溶胶的部分对这些污染物的更多信息。Toxicology Toxicology studies the influence of chemicals on health. All chemical substances may function as toxins, but low concentrations prevent many of them from being harmful. Defining which component of the structure of a chemical predicts the harmful effect is of fundamental importance in toxicology. A second issue is defining the dose/response relationships of a chemical and the exposed population. Dose may refer to delivered dose (exposure presented to the target tissue) or absorbed dose (the dose actually absorbed by the body and available for metabolism). Measures of exposure may be quite distinct from measures of effect because of internal dose modifiers (e.g., delayed metabolism of some toxins because of a lack of enzymes to transform or deactivate them). In addition, the mathematical characteristics of a dose may vary, depending on whether a peak dose, a geometric or arithmetic mean dose, or an integral under the dose curve is used.Because permission to conduct exposure of human subjects in experimental conditions is difficult to obtain, most toxicological literature is based on animal studies. Isolated animal systems (e.g.,homogenized rat livers, purified enzyme systems, or other isolated living tissues) are used to study the effects of chemicals, but extrapolation between dose level effects from animals to humans is problematic. 毒理 毒理学研究化学物质对健康的影响。所有的化学物质都可以作为毒素，但低浓度，防止他们中的许多人被有害。确定哪些成分的化学结构预测的有害影响是在毒理学的基本重要性。第二个问题是定义一个化学和暴露人群的剂量-反应关系。剂量可参考剂量（暴露了目标组织）或吸收剂量（剂量实际上被人体吸收和代谢）。措施的暴露可能的措施效果很明显因为内部剂量修饰符（例如，一些延迟代谢毒素由于缺乏酶的改造或关闭）。此外，一个剂量的数学特征可能会有所不同，这取决于峰值剂量，几何或算术平均剂量，或整体的剂量曲线下使用。因为许可在实验条件下的行为人的接触是很难获得的，大多数的毒理学文献是基于动物的研究。孤立的动物系统（例如，大鼠肝脏匀浆，纯化的酶系统，或其他孤立的活组织）是用来研究化学品的影响，外推剂量水平的影响，从动物到人类之间是有问题的。HAZARD RECOGNITION, ANALYSIS AND CONTROL Hazard recognition and analysis are conducted to determine the presence of hazardous materials or conditions as sources of potential problems. Research, inspection, and analysis determine how a particular hazard affects occupant health. Exposure assessment, an element of hazard recognition, relies on qualitative,semiquantitative, or quantitative approaches. In many situations,air sampling can determine whether a hazardous material is present. An appropriate sampling strategy must be used to ensure validity of collected samples, determining worst-case (for compliance) or usual (average) exposures. Air sampling can be conducted to determine time-weighted average (TWA) exposures,which cover a defined period of time, or short-term exposures,which determine the magnitude of exposures to materials that are acutely hazardous. Samples may be collected for a single substance or a multicomponent mixture. Hazard analysis also characterizes the potential skin absorption or ingestion hazards of an indoor environment. Analyses of bulk material samples and surface wipe samples are also used to determine whether hazardous conditions exist. Physical agent characterization may require direct-reading sampling methods. After collection and analysis,the results must be interpreted and an appropriate control strategy developed to control, reduce, or eliminate the hazard. 风险识别和分析、控制 风险识别和分析以确定危险材料或条件存在潜在问题的来源。研究，检验和分析，确定某一特定风险影响居住者的健康。暴露评估，危险源的识别元素，依靠定性，半定量或定量的方法。在许多情况下，空气采样可以决定是否有害物质的存在。一个合适的采样策略必须确保样品的有效性，确定最坏情况（遵守）或正常（平均）的风险。空气取样可以确定时间加权平均（TWA）暴露，其中包括确定一段时间，或短期的风险，确定风险的大小，材料，急性有害。样品可以收集单一物质或混合物。危害分析的特点，对皮肤吸收或吸入室内环境危害。散装材料样品和表面擦拭样品的分析是用来确定是否存在危险的条件。物理因子的鉴定需要直接读取采样方法。收集和分析后，结果的解释必须与适当的控制策略来控制，减少或消除风险。Hazards are generally grouped into one of the following four classes of environmental stressors:危害通常分为以下四个类别的环境压力： Chemical hazards. Routes of exposure to airborne chemicals are inhalation (aspiration), dermal (skin) contact, dermal absorption,and ingestion. The degree of risk from exposure depends on the nature and potency of the toxic effects, susceptibility of the person exposed, and magnitude and duration of exposure. Airborne contaminants are very important because of their ease of dispersal from sources and the risk of exposure through the lungs when they are inhaled. Airborne chemical hazards can be gaseous (vapors or gases) or particulate (e.g., dusts, fumes, mists, aerosols, fibers).化学危害。暴露于空气中的化学物质的路线（愿望），吸入皮肤（皮肤）接触，皮肤吸收，摄入。从曝光的风险程度取决于性质和毒性作用的潜能，人的易感性和暴露，大小和曝光时间。空气中的污染物是非常重要的因为它们的易扩散的来源和暴露的风险时，他们是通过肺吸入。机载化学危害可以气态（蒸气或气体）或颗粒（例如，粉尘，烟雾，烟雾，气溶胶，纤维）。 Biological hazards. Bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other living or nonliving organisms that can cause acute and chronic illness in workers and building occupants are classified as biological hazards in indoor environments. Routes of exposure are inhalation,dermal (skin) contact, and ingestion. The degree of risk from exposure depends on the nature and potency of the biological haz-ard, susceptibility of the person exposed, and magnitude and duration of exposure.生物危害。细菌，病毒，真菌，和其他生物或非生物，可引起急性和慢性的工人和住户的疾病分为室内环境中的生物危害。接触途径是吸入，皮肤（皮肤）接触，摄入。从曝光的风险程度取决于自然环境和效力的生物区ARD，人的易感性和暴露，大小和曝光时间。 Physical hazards. These include excessive levels of ionizing and nonionizing electromagnetic radiation, noise, vibration, illumination, temperature, and force. 物理危害。这些包括电离和非电离电磁辐射、 噪声、 振动、 光照、 温度和力水平过高。 Ergonomic hazards. Tasks that involve repetitive motions,require excessive force, or must be carried out in awkward postures can damage muscles,nerves, and joints. 人体工学的危害。涉及重复性的动作，需要过度使用武力，或必须在不舒适的姿势进行的任务，可损坏肌肉、 神经和关节。Hazard Control Strategies for controlling exposures in indoor environment are substitution (removal of the hazardous substance), isolation, disinfection, ventilation, and air cleaning. Not all measures may be applicable to all types of hazards, but all hazards can be controlled by using one of them. Personal protective equipment and engineering, work practice, and administrative controls are used to apply these methods. Source removal or substitution, customarily the most effective measure, is not always feasible. Engineering controls (e.g., ventilation, air cleaning) may be effective for a range of hazards. Local exhaust ventilation is more effective for controlling point-source contaminants than