第二部分 语法部分.doc

第二部分 语法部分（一）虚拟语气（subjunctive mode） 1、 虚拟语气在条件从句中的运用（1）虚拟形式If 从句 从句谓语形式 主句谓语形式将来动词过去式(be用were)should + 动词原形were to + 动词原形would / should / might / could + 动词原形现在动词过去式(be 用 were)would / should / might / could + 动词原形过去had +动词过去分词would / should / might / could have + 动词过去分词（2）虚拟原则第一，句子类型主句 + if + 从句 = If 从句 ，+ 主句 第二， 情态原则由于虚拟语气也是表示一种假设或者愿望等语气，能表达这一情况的就是情态动词，所以虚拟语气主句必须用would/should/might/could 来表示情态，而且would/should 用得最多。第三，时态倒退原则 例如对将来的虚拟， 主句would/should + have done (过去式) （完成时从时间点来看，也是过去式）过去 + 过去就是对过去的倒退 从句had done : （过去的过去）过去完成时也是对过去的倒退 倒退 D A B C 过去的过去 过去 现在 将来 Time If they treated me as a slave, I would have to resign.If we hadnt made adequate preparations, the conference wouldnt have been so successful. (3) 条件从句中如果有were, had, should, 和could 时，可以省略if，而把were, had, should, 和could放在主语前，用倒装结构。 Were it necessary, I might resign Had you informed me earlier, I wouldnt have signed the contract Should I have time, I would call on her Were they to get married, they would be happy.2、错综时间条件句主句和从句动作发生时间不一致时，主句和从句谓语动作要根据各自不同的时间选用虚拟形式。注意此时一般具有明显的不同时间标志 If I had worked hard at school, I would be sitting in a comfortable office now. If you hesitated this moment, you might suffer in future.3、介词短语替代条件状语从句表条件but for (要不是), without（如果没有） But for your help, we couldnt have succeeded. They wouldnt have reached the agreement so easily without that common ground.4、虚拟语气在宾语和表语从句中的运用 wish + 宾语从句 虚拟原则对现在的虚拟were或者 动词过去式对过去的虚拟Had done 或者 would/could have done对将来的虚拟 Would/should + 动词原形 I wish that I had taken the advice I wish she were here 5、在命令，建议，希望，要求等宾语从句和表语从句中，谓语用should + 动词原形 或者用动词原形表示虚拟。 (四大类词) 命令Order, command 等建议Suggest, propose, recommend, advise, 等希望Expect, desire等要求Demand, require 等注意第一，hope 不用虚拟语气 第二，insist +从句 （should） + 动词原形 Insist + doing She insisted that the seats be booked in advance. 6、 固定句式的虚拟语气（1） It is important/necessary/ urgent/essential/desirable/vital/advisable/imperative + that 从句 从句中用should + 动词原形 或者动词原形表示虚拟 （重要的，必要的等）It is necessary that some immediate effort be made (2) it is ( high/about) time that + 从句 : 该是做什么的时候了 从句中用过去式表示虚拟 It is high time that we were off (3) for fear that / in order that/ lest + 从句 从句中用should + 动词原形 或者动词原形表示虚拟He kept quiet lest he disturb her(4) as if /though + 从句对现在的虚拟动词过去式对过去的虚拟Had done 对将来的虚拟 Would/should + 动词原形（二）从句专题1、从句定义在主、谓、宾、定、状、补、表语七种成分中，除谓语外，其他部分如果由一个句子充当，则该句子被称为该成分的从句。2、定语从句（1）定语从句（Attributive Clauses）在句中做定语，修饰一个名词或代词，被修饰的名词,词组或代词即先行词。定语从句通常出现在先行词之后，由关系词（关系代词或关系副词）引出。（2）关系词引导定语从句的关联词称为关系词，关系词有关系代词和关系副词。关系代词有that, which, who, whom, whose, as等，绝对没有what；关系副词有where, when, why等。关系词常有3个作用连接作用，引导定语从句。代替主句中的先行词，甚至可能是主句中的一部分或者整个主句。在定语从句中充当一句子成分。注意关系代词在从句中作主语，宾语，表语，定语等，关系副词在从句中作地点状语，时间状语，原因状语等。（3）关系代词引导的定语从句基本特征第一，who, whom, that这些词代替的先行词是人的名词或代词，who作主语指人，whom作宾语指人，that既可作主语又可作宾语（作宾语可以省略），可以指人也可以指物。在从句中所起作用如下 Is he the man who/that wants to see you? 他就是想见你的人吗？（who/that在从句中作主语） He is the man whom/ that I saw yesterday. 他就是我昨天见的那个人。（whom/that在从句中作宾语）第二，Whose 用来指人或物(只用作定语, 若指物，它还可以同of which互换，指人的时候也可以用of whom 代替）They rushed over to help the man whose car had broken down. 那人车坏了，大家都跑过去帮忙。 Please pass me the book whose (of which) color is green.请递给我那本绿皮的书。第三，as as 可以做主语，也可以作宾语，作宾语时一般不省略，指人或者物。常与such as, the same as等短语连用。I have got into the same trouble as he (has).（4）限制性定语从句第一，如果which在从句中作“不及物动词+介词”的介词的宾语，注意介词不要丢掉，而且介词总是放在关系代词which的前边，但有的则放在它原来的位置。 先行词 + 介词 + which/whom + 从句第二，that既可代表事物也可代表人，which代表事物；它们在从句中作主语或宾语，that在从句中作宾语时常可省略关系词，which在从句中作宾语也可以省略。但在下列情况中用that而不用whicha)先行词是anything, everything, nothing , none等不定代词时； b)先行词由every, any, all, some, no, little, few, much等修饰时，这时的that常被省略； c)先行词前有序数词或被形容词最高级修饰时； d)先行词同时又被the only, the very, the same修饰时；第三，关系副词关系副词在句中作状语 关系副词=介词+关系代词 why=for which其先行词一般为reason where=in/ at/ on/ . which (介词同先行词搭配) when=during/ on/ in/ . which (介词同先行词搭配) I still remember the day when I first came to the school.Shanghai is the city where I was bornThe reason why/ for which he refused the invitation is not clear注意where是关系副词，用来表示地点的定语从句。 when引导定语从句表示时间注值得一提的是，表示时间“time一词的定语从句只用when引导，有时不用任何关系代词，当然也不用that引导。（5）非限制性定语从句第一， which引导的非限定性定语从句作用是说明前面整个句子的情况或主句的某一部分 第二，.当先行词是专有名词、物主代词或指示代词所修饰时，其后的定语从句通常是非限制性的， 例如 Charles Smith, who was my former teacher, retired last year. My house, which I bought last year, has got a lovely garden.This novel, which I have read three times, is very touching. 第三，.非限定性定语从句可将整个主句作为先行词, 对其进行修饰, 这时从句谓语动词要用第三人称单数，例如 He seems not to have grasped what I meant, which greatly upsets me.Liquid water changes to vapor, which is called evaporation. 液态水变为蒸汽，这就叫做蒸发。 第四， 在非限定性定语从句中，不能用关系副词why和关系代词that，而用who, whom代表人，用which, whose代表事物，如果需要用why，可用for which代替.； 第五，关系代词as和which引导的定语从句as和which引导非限制性定语从句，有相同之处也有不同之处。具体情况是 1)，As和which都可以在定语从句中做主语或者宾语，代表前面整个句子。 He married her, as/which was natural. He was honest, as/which we can see. 2)，as 引导非限制性定语从句，可放在主句之前，或者主句之后，甚至可以切割一个主句；which引导的非限制性定语从句只能放在主句之后。另外，as有“正如，正像”的意思 As is known to all, China is a developing country. He is from the south, as we can see from his accent. John, as you know, is a famous writer. He has been to Paris more than several times, which I dont believe.3)，当主句和从句存在逻辑上的因果关系时，常用which。 Tom was always late for school, which made his teacher angry.3、名词性从句（1）意义在句子中起名词作用的句子叫名词性从句 (Noun Clauses）。 名词性从句的功能相当于名词词组, 它在复合句中能担任主语、宾语、表语、同位语、介词宾语等，因此根据它在句中不同的语法功能，名词性从句又可分别称为主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句。（2）引导名词性从句的连接词引导名词性从句的连接词可分为四类 无词性连词that（宾语从句或表语从句中that有时可以省略） 连接代词what, whatever, who, whoever, whom, whomever, which, whichever连接形容词Whose 连接副词when, where, how, why, whenever, wherever, however, whether, if（均表示“是否”表明从句内容的不确定性） as if ,as though（均表示“好像”，“似乎”）注意whether与if 均为是否的意思。 但在下列情况下，只可用whether 第一，whether引导主语从句并在句首 第二，引导表语从句 第三，whether从句作介词宾语 第四，从句后有or not 第五， 引导同位语从句 Whether he will come is not clear.（3）同位语从句第一，同位语从句说明其前面的名词的具体内容。同位语从句通常由that引导，可用于同位语从句的名词有advice、demand、doubt、fact、hope、idea、information、message、news、order、problem、promise、question、request、suggestion、truth、wish、word等。第二，同位语从句和定语从句的区别that作为关系代词，可以引导定语从句，充当句子成分，在从句中作宾语时可以省略； that引导同位语从句时，起连词的作用，没有实际意义，不充当句子成分，一般不能省略。 I had no idea that you were here（that引导同位语从句，不能省略） Have you got the idea（that）this book gives you of life in ancient Greece？（that引导定语从句，作宾语，可以省略）The news that we won the game is exciting.我们赢得这场比赛的消息令人激动。 I have no idea when he will come back home. 我不知道他什么时候回来。 The thought came to him that Mary had probably fallen ill. 他想到可能玛丽生病了。 4、状语从句：指句子用作状语时，起副词作用的句子。它可以修饰谓语、非谓语动词、定语、状语或整个句子。根据其作用可分为时间、地点、原因、条件、目的、结果、让步、方式和比较等从句。状语从句连词的选择主要看连词的意思。（1）状语从句的时态特点一般情况下，时间和条件状语从句的谓语动词一般用“一般现在时”表示“一般将来时”，用“现在完成时”表示“将来完成时”。例如I will call you as soon as I arrive in Beijing. 我到北京就将给你打电话。（这是由as soon as引导的时间状语从句，从句中的谓语动词arrive是一般现在时，表示一般将来时，决不可用will arrive） As soon as I have finished this work, I will go home. 我一完成此工作，就回家。（从句中的谓语动词用现在完成时have finished，表示将来完成时,决不可用will have finished）（2）时间状语从句常用引导词when, as, while, as soon as, before, after, since , till, until 特殊引导词the minute, the moment, the second, every time, the day，the instant, immediately , directly, no sooner than, hardly when, scarcely when， by the time 等.注by the time + 从句：从句中要用完成时态（将来完成时，现在完成时和过去完成时）By the time I got to school, the class had already began.（3）地点状语从句常用引导词where 特殊引导词wherever, anywhere, everywhere例如： Generally, air will be heavily polluted where there are factories. Wherever you go, you should work hard. 地点状语从句一般由连接副词where, wherever等引导，已经形成了固定的句型，例如句型1 Where+地点从句，（there）+主句。 此句型通常译成“哪里哪里就”；主句在从句后面时，there可用可不用；如果主句在从句的前面时，一般都不用there。例如 Where there is no rain, farming is difficult or impossible.在没有雨水的地方，耕作是困难的，或根本不可能的。（4）方式状语从句常用引导词as, as if, how，特殊引导词the wayWhen in Rome, do as the Roman do. She behaved as if she were the boss. Sometimes we teach our children the way our parents have taught us.（5）原因状语从句because, since ,as ,for , 特殊连词 in that = because, now that =since I stay at home, for the weather is cold. ( for 前面有逗号)Because 不位于句首。（6）状语从句的简化第一，状语从句同时具备下列两个条件: 主句和从句的主语一致，或从句主语为it；从句主要动词是be的某种形式。从句中的主语和be动词常可省略When ( the museum is ) completed , the museum will be open to the public next year . Hell go to the seaside for his holiday if (it is ) possible.第二，省略结果1）连词+形容词 Work hard when (you are) young, or youll regret.少壮不努力,老大徒伤悲。b.连词+名词While (he was) a young boy, he was always ready to help others.他在孩提时代就乐于助人。 c.连词+现在分词 As (she was) walking along the river bank, she was singing a pop songd.连词+过去分词He wont go there with us unless (he is) invited.除非受到邀请,否则他不会和我们一道去那里。 e.连词+不定式He stood up as if (he were) to say something.当时他站起来好像要说什么。 f.连词+介词短语She looked anxious as though (she was) in trouble.她看上去很焦急,好像遇到了麻烦。 注意:当从句主语和主句主语不一致时,从句部分要么用完全形式,要么用独立主格结构来表达。例如: When the meeting was over, all the people went out of the meeting-room.当会议结束时,人们都走出了会议室。(=The meeting over) （三）倒装1、倒装是一种语法手段，用于表示一定的句子结构或强调某一句子成分。倒装句有两种完全倒装和部分倒装。2、完全倒装（考点较少）完全倒装即把整个谓语放到主语之前（是整个谓语动词，而非助动词）。 例如In came the teacher and the class began（1）以关联词so (that)开头的句子中，句子须倒装。例如1）So small was the mark that I could hardly see it. 2）So quickly did the workmen finish their work that they were given a bonus.（2）在as, though引导的让步状语从句中在as, though引导的让步状语从句中，一般将形容词、 副词或名词等置于句首。例如1）Small as the atom is, we can smash it. 2）Big as the art piece is , it is turned out with3、部分倒装: 部分倒装即只把谓语的一部分（如助动词、情态动词等）放到主语前，或把句子的强调成分提前。即“助动词 + 主语 + 实意动词”形式 Nor did he let the disease stop him from living the kind of life he has always dreamed about。以否定词开头的句子要求部分倒装。例如at no time; by no means; by no manner of means; for no reason; in no case; in/under no circumstances; in no sense; in no way; on no account; on no consideration; at no point等词位于句首。Not until yesterday did little John change his mind.In no country other than Britain, it had been said, can one experience four seasons in the course of a single day。（1）以否定副词开头并加状语放在句首的句子要求部分倒装。这些否定副词有barely, hardly, little, seldom, scarcely when, never, no sooner than, rarely, no more, not nearly, not only等以及only。 注意常考scarcelywhen, no sooner than, hardlywhen，而且主句要求使用过去完成式Hardly had he arrived when/No sooner had he arrived than he was asked to leave again.。（2）由as引导的部分倒装句当as作为比较意义时，即用于as + adj./ adv. + as结构中时，如果把第一个as省略掉，就形成部分倒装句。She charged the stairs, （as ）quick as a rabbit (ran).当 as引导让步状语时，和although, though一样，当用作“尽管”之义时，可以用于部分倒装句。Hard as he worked, he did not pass the exam （四）时态（共16种时态，一般现在、一般过去、一般将来、过去将来时，以及这四者的一般时、进行时、完成时和完成进行时）1、一般现在时（1）时态标志always, usually, often, sometimes, every week (day, year, month), once a week, on Sundays, The shop opens at nine every day（2）一般现在时在时间和条件状语从句中表示将来的动作或状态 Ill tell her about it as soon as I see her 2、现在进行时 （1）时态标志now, at this time, days, etc How are you feeling today?现在进行时表示说话时或现阶段正在进行的动作现在进行时在表示经常性、重复性或习惯性的动作时必须与only, merely, simply, really,fast, rapidly, steadily, forever, all the time, always, constantly, continually, repeatedly等频度副词连用She is always complaining. 她总是在抱怨。现在进行时表示按计划或已安排好要做的事（现在进行表将来）这一用法只适用于某些动词，如go, come, leave, start, arrive, return, spend, sail, meet, fly等。如 The guest is leaving by train tonight. 客人今晚坐火车走。 3、现在完成进行时表示从过去某一时间开始一直延续到现在的动作。这一动作可能刚刚开始，也可能仍在继续，并可能延续到将来。（1）基本结构have/has +been+doing（2）时间状语since+时间点，for+时间段等（3）现在完成进行时表示从过去一直持续到现在的动作或刚刚结束的动作 Ive been writing letters all this morning. 我写了一上午信。（动作不再继续）现在完成进行时表示从过去到现在的重复性动作 现在完成进行时的这种用法所表示的并不是一直在进行的动作，而是断断续续地反复发生的动作。如 What have you been doing all this time? 你一直都在干什么来着？（动作可能继续下去） That reporter has been contributing articles to this magazine all these years. 这些年那个记者一直为这家杂志撰稿。（断断续续地反复发生的动作）4、过去完成时had done (1) had+just / barely / hardly / scarcely+done.when., no sooner.than. 是表示“刚就”或“不等就”的固定句型。No sooner had we left the house than it began to rain.(2) 过去完成时表示持续到过去某时之前的动作或状态: 时间状语by 和before: We had finished the work by nine oclock yesterday.I had not gone much farther before I caught them up.5、现在完成时（1）时间状语有时可以和already, before, ever, just, lately, never, once, recently, yet等一些所指时间不具体的时间状语连用。 如Have you ever been to Australia? （2）现在完成时和until now, so far, in the past few years, up to the present/now, for the past 5 days etc等表示从某时到目前这段时间的状语连用 I have not heard from her so far。 特殊句型1) it is the 序数词（first/second etc） time + that 从句 （现在完成时）It is the first time I have been in Beijing 2) it is the best/ worst + 名词+ 从句 （现在完成时）It is the best film I have ever seen （五）语态主动语态和被动语态1、在need, require, want, worth (形容词), deserve后的动名词必须用主动形式。 The door needs repairing.= The door needs to be repaired.（六）非谓语1、非谓语动词是指在句子中不是谓语的动词，主要包括不定式、动名词和分词（现在分词和过去分词），即动词的非谓语形式。2、动词不定式（to）+do，具有名词、形容词、副词的特征。 否定式not + (to) do（1）作主语常用句式有 1）It+be+名词+to do。 2）It takes sb.+some time+to do。 3）It+be+形容词+of sb +to do。常用careless,clever,good,foolish,honest,kind,lazy,nice,right,silly,stupid,wise,等表示赞扬或批评的形容词，不定式前的sb.可作其逻辑主语。It is very hard to finish the work in ten minutes.(2) 作宾语常与不定式做宾语连用的动词有force ,compel ,want, hope, wish, offer, fail, plan, learn, pretend, refuse, manage, help, agree, promise, prefer, 如果不定式（宾语）后面有宾语补足语，则用it作形式宾语，真正的宾语（不定式）后置，放在宾语补足语后面，例如 Marx found it important to study the situation in Russia(3) 作状语1) 表目的 He worked day and night to get the money.2) 表结果(往往是与预期愿望相反的结果 意料之外) 常放在only to find后 He arrived late only to find the train had gone. 他来晚了，只见火车已经走了。 I visited him only to find him out. 我去拜访他，只见他出去了。3、动名词: (1) 动名词既具有动词的一些特征，又具有名词的句法功能。 一般式（谓语动词同时发生）(ones) doing/ being done 完成式（谓语动词发生之前）(ones ) having done/ having been done 否定式not + 动名词(2) 作主语it is no use/ no need/ useful/useless/no good etc + doing sthIts no use quarreling(3) 作宾语如下动词及短语只跟动名词作宾语 enjoy, finish, suggest, avoid（避免）, excuse ,delay, imagine, keep, miss, consider, admit（承认），deny（否认）, mind, permit, forbid, practice, risk（冒险）, appreciate（感激）, be busy, be worth, feel like, cant stand, cant help（情不自禁地）, think of, dream of, be fond of, prevent(from),keep from, stop（from）,protectfrom, set about, be engaged in, spend(in), succeed in, be used to, look forward to, object to, pay attention to, insist on, feel like，postpone 等4、分词现在分词doing 过去分词done现在分词的主动语态现在分词主动语态的一般式表示与谓语动词所表示的动作同时发生，完成 式表示的动作在谓语动词所表示的动作之前发生，常作状语。例如 They went to the park, singing and talking.现在分词的被动语态一般式表示与谓语动词同时发生的被动的动作，完成式表示发生在谓语动词之前的被动的动作。 The problem being discussed is very important. 正在被讨论的问题很重要。 Having been told many times, the naughty boy made the same mistake. 被告诉了好几遍，这个淘气的孩子又犯了同一个错误。（1）作状语1）可以位于句首、句中或句末，且常用逗号隔开。 Doing sth, 主语 + 谓语+ 其他此时主语必须为”doing sth “的形式主语。 Being a League member, he is always helping others。2）done + 其他， 主语+ 谓语+ 其他此时主语要是”done”的逻辑宾语。 Praised by the neighbors, he became the pride of his parents.3）独立主格 名词/代词 + 分词短语， 主语 + 谓语+ 其他 。 此时名词/代词才是分词的逻辑主语或者宾语。 Mike being ill, the meeting has to be delayed. 4) with + 名词 + 其他（分词短语/不定时/复合形容词等）， 主语+ 谓语+ 其他， With three students absent from class ,the meeting has to be postponed.（七）其他语法点1、倍数的表示法（1）A + be + 倍数 + as + 计量形容词原级 + as + B. This tree is three times as tall as that one. 这棵树是那棵树的三倍高。 His father is twice as old as he. 他父亲的年纪有他两倍大。 （2）A + be + 倍数 + 计量形容词比较级 + than + B The Yangtze River is almost twice longer than the Pearl River. 长江差不多比珠江长两倍。 The dictionary is exactly five times more expensive than that one. 这本字典比那本恰好贵5倍。 （3）A + be + 倍数 + the + 计量名词 + of + B The newly broadened square is four times the size of the previous one. 新扩建的广场是未扩建时的四倍大。 （4）The + 计量名词 + of + A + be + 倍数 + that + of + B The size of the newly broadened square is four times that of the previous one. 新扩建的广场为以前的四倍大。 2、比较级的修饰even，a lot，a bit，a little，still，much，far, yet, by far等。例如He works even harder than before注意:by far 通常用于强调最高级。用于比较级时,一般放在比较级的后面, 如放在前面,应在二者中间加“the”。3、主谓一致(1) 并列结构作主语时谓语用复数 Reading and writing are very important. 注意 当主语由and连结时，如果它表示一个单一的概念，即指同一人或同一物时，谓语动词用单数，and 此时连接的两个词前只有一个冠词，共用一个冠词用单数，表示一人兼两职。 The iron and steel industry is very important to our life. (2) 主谓一致中的就近原则: 在由not onlybut also, not justbut, or, eitheror, neithernor连接主语的句子中及在there be, here 句型中，谓语动词的单复数按就近原则处理，即按与谓语动词最靠近的那个主语来确定谓语动词的单复数形式。 如 Not only John but also I am going to Shanghai next week. (3) 谓语动词与前面的主语一致: 当主语后面跟有with, together with, like, except, but, no less than, as well as 等词引起的短语时,谓语动词与前面的主语一致. The teacher together with some students is visiting the factory. Section E 11. Discipline cannot be _ until the last day of school has passed.A. lessened B. reduced C. relaxed D. lowered12. Some people argue that _ regulations for water pollution will drive up costs and put jobs at risk.A. firm B. tight C. tense D. close13. To keep her job, she has to _ the bad temper of her boss.A. put up with B. take up on C. make up for D. come up to14. Student journalists are taught how to be _ when writing in a limited space.A. convincing B. briefC. appealing D. expressive15. The discussion was so _ that at intervals the speakers stopped for refreshments.A. exhausted B. exhausting C. excited D. exciting16.