语义学汇总.doc

一、语义学视角下语义的表现（一）王寅教授的分析(1)说话人意义（speakers meaning）, 受话人的意义（hearers meaning）语言交际过程中参与者的角色分析(2)自然意义（natural meaning）和非自然意义（unnatural meaning）(3)词素义（morpheme meaning）, 词义（word meaning）, 句义（sentence meaning）, 话词义（utterance meaning）, 语篇义（discourse meaning）(4)内涵义（intensional meaning ）与 外延义（extentional meaning）从哲学和逻辑学角度(5)概念意义和附加意义（conceptual meaning and added meaning）（二）、Leech 对意义的区分七种Leech recognizes seven types of meaning in his Semantics1) Conceptual meaning :logical, cognitive, or denotative content2) Connotative meaning: What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to3) Social meaning: What is communicated of the social circumstances of language use4) Affective meaning: What is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer5) Reflected meaning : What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression6) Collocative meaning: What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word 7) Thematic meaning: What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.以下为对上述的解释1、自然意义，非自然意义Natural meaning and non-natural meaningNatural meaning and nonnatural meaning is put forward by Grice in his famous article “Meaning”.As for natural meaning, there is the evidential relationship between a cause and its effect. An example of natural meaning is “Those spots mean measles.” “x means y” is related to “x shows that y,” “x is a symptom of y” and “x lawfully correlates with y”. Those spots on little Jimmy do not really mean measles in natural meaning, if Jimmy does not have measles, even if the spots typically correlate with measles.Nonnatural meaning pertains to language and communication. It means words and speakers. On nonnatural sense, “x means y” is closer to “x says/asserts that y”, “x expresses y”. And when “x means y” is the case, it will usually be true that someone, or some group, means something by x. In nonnatural sense, it can be true that “x means y” even though x obtains when y is not the case. Thus our speaker might indeed have meant that you should bring more whisky, when in reality you should not: his meaning it, in nonnatural sense, does not make it so.In Grices opinion, nonnatural meaning is used to induce some belief in hearer. More than that, it is used to induce the belief by getting the addressee to recognize the intention to induce a belief: in meaning something, then speaker does not merely cause the hearer to have a belief, he/she overtly gives the speaker a reason to believe, the reason being that he/she wants the speaker to believe. Thus what a person means, in the nonnatural sense, comes down to his/her complex mental states, especially intentions.2、关于听话人，说话人The Speaker and the ListenerTo ensure smooth communication between the speaker and the listener, it is important to nail down the role of them and the interaction between them. Some basic linguistics theory, such as Speech Act Theory, the Cooperative Principle, Conversational Implicatures, the Politeness Principle, atc. will help learners to well understand the role of the speaker and the listener.Speech act is actions performed via utterances. In English, it is commonly given more specific labels, such as apology, complaint, compliment, invitation, promise, or request. These descriptive terms for different kinds of speech acts apply to the speakers communicative intention in producing an utterance. The speaker normally expects that his or her communicative intention will be recognized by the hearer. Both speaker and hearer are usually helped in this process by the circumstances surrounding the utterance.We know that quite often a speaker can mean a lot more than what is said. The problem is to explain how the speaker can manage to convey more than what is said and how the hearer can arrive at the speakers meaning. H. P. Grice believes that there must be some mechanisms governing the production and comprehension of these utterances. He suggests that there is a set of assumptions guiding the conduct of conversation. This is what he calls the Cooperative Principle (CP).According to Grice, conversational implicatures can arise from either strictly and directly observing or deliberately and openly flouting the maxims, that is, speakers can produce implicatures in two ways: observance and non-observance of the maxims. The least interesting case is when speakers directly observe the maxims so as to generate conversational implicatures. If the hearer wants to accurately export the conversational implicatures, he or she should know something about the the following aspects: 1）conventionality implicatures of the utterance; 2）cooperative principle and criteria; 3）the context of the utterance; 4）some common background knowledge of the speaker and the listener.In most cases, the indirectness is motivated by considerations of politeness. Politeness is usually regarded by most pragmatists as a means or strategy which is used by a speaker to achieve various purposes, such as saving face, establishing and maintaining harmonious social relations in conversation, thus to promote better communication between the speaker and the listener.3、句义，词义，话语意义，命题意义，篇章意义从哲学方面以及语言学方面对其进行分析；它们在不同语境中状态；结合法律举例1) Word meaning Word is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form: it is abstract and de-contextualized. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. Obviously, linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. On the other hand, there are also occasions, when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense. A very good example is the two expressions “morning star” and “evening star”. These two differ in sense but as a matter of fact, what they refer to is the same: the very same star that we see in the sky. According to Wittegenstein, words like tools, the meaning of word depends on the usage of the word. In another word, the meaning of word depends on the function of the word. The meaning of a word rests with the usage of the word in a language. Words are different tools in language. These tools are characterized by their usage. Sometimes, he did not see words as tools, however, he said directly: languages are tools. The different concepts in language are different tools.2) Sentence Meaning: (句子意义是构成句子的词汇意义和结构意义共同作用的结果)The meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. It is obvious that the sentence meaning is connected with the meaning of the words which constitute the sentence; but it is still clear that the sentence meaning is not the totality of the meanings of the component words because the syntactical structure of the sentence also plays a role in determining the sentence meaning. That is to say, the meaning of a sentence is a product of both lexical and grammatical meaning. Lexical meaning is the de-contextual denotation of the words which is defined in the dictionary, while the grammatical meaning is abstract meaning represented by the grammatical structures of the words. Semantic relations: (句子之间的关系：同义，反义，蕴含)Synonymy: the sameness in meaning between sentences.Antonymy: the oppositeness in meaning between sentences. eg: “Overruled.” “反对无效。”“Sustained.” “反对有效。” （uttered by a judge when confronting an objection of a lawyer in the court)Entailment：A sentence entails a second sentence when the truth of the first sentence guarantees the truth of the second sentence, and the falsity of the second sentence guarantees the falsity of the first.Linguistic Analysis:(句子除了有字面意义外，还有在一定语境中产生的语境意义和会话含义)Besides the combination of the lexical and grammatical meaning of the sentence, which may be called the literal meaning of sentence, there are another two kinds of sentence meaning: the contextual meaning and conversational implicature of sentences. The contextual meaning refers to the meaning attached to the intrinsic meaning of the sentence when used by people, and connected with the text, situation, cultural background, etc. The conversational implicature refers to the implied meaning of the speaker when using the sentence. Philosophical Analysis: Broadly speaking, the meaning of a sentence is a proposition. In truth-conditional semantics, the meaning of a sentence is obtained from and determined by the conditions under which it may be true. The linguistic philosopher G. Frege holds that a sentence has no truth value if the sentence has no clear meaning because vague meaning may result in a failure in judging the truth value. Many sentences have no truth value at all, but they still have meaning. The meaning of such sentences is largely determined by their conditions of use rather than their truth conditions. Any question, e.g., Which evidence will prevail? （哪样证据会被采信？）lacks a direct connection to a set of truth conditions. Even though the sentences The accused is acquittal. and The accused is found innocent. have the same truth conditions, they have very different situations of use.3) Proposition and proposition meaning(1) Proposition: usually defined as the content or meaning expressed by a sentence; the relationship between a sentence and a proposition can be seen as the expression and the expressed. Generally, the sentences are declarative sentences that make some kind of judgments that is beyond the capability of questions, imperatives or excalmatives. Additionally, a sentence that conveys no meanings can never be called a proposition.(2) Proposition meaning: the truth value of a proposition. In semantics, the value of a proposition is typically studied in the field of truth-conditional semantics. In truth-conditional semantics, the recognized way to figure out the meaning of a sentence (or a proposition) is to find out the conditions under which it may be true. The famous example incited by the famous linguist Tarski is: “Snow is white is true iff snow is white” in which “iff” stands for “if and only if”. And he summarized the regularity for such propositions to be true as “S is true iff p” and p stands for the set of conditions that fit for all sentences.(3) Linguistically, a proposition is a sentence that is endowed with the truth value. Sometimes, a proposition can be expressed by different sentences. For example: a) The interpretation of these Regulations shall be vested in the Ministry of Finance.b) These Regulations shall be interpreted by the Ministry of Finance. These two sentences both speculate the proposition that “the Regulations will be interpreted by the Ministry of Finance” though clearly they are two distinct sentences.And sometimes, the same sentence can express different propositions when referred to in different times, or by different speakers. For instance:c) 乙方为甲方培养四个实验室的工作人员。In this statement, we can say that “Party B will train four workers for the library of Party A(乙方为甲方的实验室培养四个工作人员)” or that “Party B will train workers for the four libraries of Party A（乙方为甲方的四个实验室培养工作人员）”.(4)Philosophically, the truth value of proposition is usually described or analyzed through syllogism. For instance:d) All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. So Socrates is mortal.In philosophy, there are generally five logical connectives to connect the different propositions in a certain context: conjunction (and, written as &/), disjunction (or, written as), implication ( ifthen, written as ), equivalence ( if and only if, written as ) and negation ( not, written as ). In the field of linguistic philosophy, the truth value of a proposition can vary according to different interpretations. 4) Utterance and utterance meaning(1)Utterance: In my point of view, the langue and parole shall be mentioned before the utterance is discussed. Generally speaking, utterance does not have a precise linguistic definition. Phonetically an utterance is a unit of speech bounded by silence. In dialogue, each turn by a speaker may be considered an utterance. To some degree, the “utterance” does not mean words, sentences, or even the texts. Sometimes, even an intonation or a gestures will have their implied meanings.(2) Utterance meaning: In semantics, we know even the word “mean has different meanings. As is known to us, one utterance or expression has more than one meaning except its literal meaning. So in accordance with this phenomenon, the subject “pragmatics” has been formed. By virtue of the efforts of some linguistic experts such as Austin and Grice, they put forward some relevant theories, principles and methods to study this phenomenon, therefore the most outstanding theory (a theory of the illocutionary act) came into being. The speaker may utter out one utterance but refer to a total different thing beyond its literal meaning.(3) Some examples:In legal English, some expressions are quite different from daily language. Taking the word “lawyer” for example, the common people may deems it as someone whose job is to advise people about laws, write formal agreements, or represent people in court, but its meaning is quite larger than that, it also refers to those who study law or is closely related to the study of law, and so on. Now, lets look at one more example; the word “insured”, we can find its pronunciation in the dictionary, the letter e” is pronounced as i, but some professionals may pronounce it as e.In legal English, there are also many other examples; to make a simply speaking, the utterance meaning is the meaning beyond it literal meaning. To know the deeper meaning or the implied meaning, relevant situations such as the history, culture and the legal systems shall be taken into consideration. 5) Discourse and discourse meaningThe meaning of discourse is the psychological reflection of fraction of reality formed by the interaction of the discourse and personal background in personal consciousness. There are three levels for the meaning of discourse. The first refers to the psychological reflection of fraction of reality in the senders consciousness in the process from reflection transfer to discourse. The second refers to the constructed meaning of discourse. And the third refers to the psychological reflection of fraction of reality formed by the interaction of discourse and the receivers background in the receivers consciousness. The meaning of discourse can be considered as the language message contained in the language sign and the message reflecting the reality directly. The meaning of discourse is the psychological reflection of fraction of reality formed by the interaction of the discourse and personal background in personal consciousness. There are three levels for the meaning of discourse. The first refers to the psychological reflection of fraction of reality in the senders consciousness in the process from reflection transfer to discourse. The second refers to the constructed meaning of discourse. And the third refers to the psychological reflection of fraction of reality formed by the interaction of discourse and the receivers background in the receivers consciousness. The meaning of discourse can be considered as the language message contained in the language sign and the message reflecting the reality directly. 二、语义三角Semantic Triangle A theory which explicitily employs the notion “concept” is the semantic triangle proposed by Ogden and Richard in their The Meaning of Meaning. They argue that the relation between a word and a thing it refers to is not direct. It is mediated by concept. In a diagram form, the relation is represented as follows: Concept (Thought) （Symbolizes） (Refers to) Symbol - Referent (Word) (Stands for) (Thing)This diagram indicates that:1) Concept(概念)/Thought(思想) is directly linked to Referent(所指物)/Thing(事物). The Concept is based on the objective things. In other words, it is the reflective image of the objective things in ones mind. In this triangle, there is a real line between the Concept and Referent, which shows “A Concept refers to a Thing”.2) Concept is also directly linked to Symbol(表意符号)/Word(词). The Concept is represented by virtue of Symbol/Word. In other words, the Word is used to express the Concept. Also a real line link the Concept and Symbol/Word, which shows “A Word symbolized a concept”.3) Between Symbol/Word and Referent/Thing there is no direct and necessary link. That is to say the link is arbitrary and conventional. A broken line is used to connect the both, which shows “A Word stands for a Referent/Thing”. Because of the arbitrary connection between the Word and Referent, a Thing can be expressed by different Words. For example: dog is 狗 in chinese, dog in english, hund in germen and perro in Spanish, etc. Conventionally, Concept is the media to link the Word and Referent. The so-called Meaning is the relationship between Word and Referent. Before establishing aforesaid relationship, there must be a Concept which is conventional and understandable in the minds of the speaker and hearer. Based on this, the hearer can see what the speaker means.三、涵义与指称(On