英语语言学教程课后整理.doc

学习资料收集于网络，仅供参考例：老牛把草吃完了 。 草被老牛吃完了。例：我已经长大了。 小树已经发芽了。立刀旁：到、刚虫 虫字旁（蜘 蛛 蛙）饣 食字旁（饱 饭 馒）1、组词。（形近字和同音字）绞丝旁：红、绿、级、练、给(2)、鸟蛋凉凉的凉凉的鸟蛋 小路长长的长长的小路加两笔:口（只）（古）（石 ）（右）（可）（加）（叶）五拃甸小学 普 琼菜园里有白菜，有南瓜，还有茄子。What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. -A person who studies linguistics is known as a linguist. Prescriptive &Descriptive规定性&描写性 (定义、区别)Prescriptive - If a linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar)Descriptive - If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use (modern linguistic)Synchronic & Diachronic 共时性对历时性（定义）Synchronic study- description of a language at some point of time in history (modern linguistics) Diachronic study- description of a language as it changes through time (historical development of language over a period of time) Langue &Parole (F. de Saussure) 语言对话语Langue - the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.Parole - the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.Competence &Performance (Chomsky) 语言能力对语言运用（定义）Competence - the ideal users knowledge of the rules of this language Performance - the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.Traditional grammar & Modern linguistics 传统语法对现代语言学（区别）Traditional grammar - prescriptive, written, Latin-based framework Modern linguistics - descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework我的页脚The design features of human language (Charles Hockett)Arbitrariness（任意性）声音和事物之间的关联Productivity/Creativity（能产性）Duality（双层性）Displacement（移位性）Cultural transmission（文化传承）Phonetics语音学 (定义和分类)Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds language.Three branches of phonetics（发音语音学，听觉语音学，声学语音学）Articulatory phonetics-from the speakers point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”Auditory phonetics-from the hearers point of view, “how sounds are perceived”Acoustic phonetics-from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another. Classification of vowels（元音）Monophthongs or pure/single vowels（单元音）Diphthongs or gliding vowels （双元音）According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as: 。Phone(音素), phoneme（音位）, and allophone（音位变体） （区分判断）A phone- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, and some dont。A phoneme- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic contextAllophones - the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.Phonemic contrast（音位对立）, Complementary distribution（互补分布） and Minimal pair（最小对立体）.v Complementary distribution-allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g. dark l & clear l, aspirated p & unaspirated p. (课上强调)The clear l always occurs before a vowel while the dark l always occurs between a vowel and a consonant, or at the end of a word. So the allophones(音位变体) are said to be in Complementary distribution.Some rules in phonology（音位学）Sequential rules(序列)The rules that govern the combination of sounds in aparticular language, e.g. in English, “k b i I” mightpossibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb. If a word begins with a l or a r, then the next sound must be a vowel. Assimilation rule(同化) Assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar Deletion rule(省略) it tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented。 E.g. design, paradigm, there is no g sound; but theg sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms signature, designation, paradigmatic.Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）-the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments ( larger than phoneme): 判断题（具体书上看）Syllable：音节stress （重音）tone（低音）intonation（语调）Chapter 3 Morphology(形态学)Morphology to refer to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.Open class word and closed class word(开放词类和封闭词类)Open class words-content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs.Closed class words- grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns. （数次，感叹词半开放半封闭词类）Morpheme-the minimal unit of meaning（词素最小的意义单位）Free and Bound morphemes (自由词素和粘附词素)Free morphemea word by itself(独立自由运用)Bound morpheme-attached to another one （必须依附于自由词素，否则不能构成词）Allomorphs（词素变体）-the variant forms of a morpheme. e.g. a boy, an hourWord structure Root(词根)constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning. A root is that part of the word left when all the affixes (inflectional & derivational) are removed, e.g. “desire” in “desirable”, “care” in “carefully”, “nation” in “internationalism”, “believe” in “unbeliev(e)able” Stem(词干) A stem is part of a word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed, e.g. “Undesirable” in undesirables Base词基 A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. This means any stem and root can be termed as a base.v A base can be added by both inflectional & derivational affixes while a stem can be added only by inflectional affixes;v A base is derivationally analyzable (e.g. undesire in undesirable) while a root cannot be further analyzed, e.g. desire in undesirable; v Root, stem and base can be the same form, e.g. desire in desired;v Undesirable in undesirables is either a stem or a base;v Desirable in undesirable is only a base.Compound（复合词）v When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category, e.g. postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue-black v When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound, e.g. head-strong, pickpocketv Compounds have different stress patterns from the non-compounded word sequence, e.g. red coat, green housev The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.Chapter 4 Syntax（句法）What is syntax?Syntax-a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Major lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep.Minor Lexical categories: Det(determiner限定词), Deg（degree words表程度的词）, Qual（qualifier频度副词）, Aux（Auxilarity助动词）, Conj（conjunction连词 ）. The criteria on which categories are determined：Meaning、Inflection Distribution（The most reliable criterion of determining a words category is its distribution.）Phrase categories-the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P). The structure: specifier + head + complement Head（中心语）- the word around which a phrase is formedSpecifier（标志语）- the words on the left side of the headsComplement（补语）- the words on the right side of the headsThe XP rule（词组层面上）X TheoryXP (Specifier)X X X(complement)Do insertion（DO的插入）Do insertion- Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl（屈折变化） position. Deep structure & surface structure（深层结构和表层结构的定义和区分）Deep structure-formed by the XP rule in accordance with the heads sub-categorization properties; it contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence. Surface structure-corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations; it is that of the sentence as it is pronounced or written.Chapter 5 Semantics（语义学）Semantics-the study of language meaning.Meaning is central to the study of communication.What is meaning? - Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaningSome views concerning the study of meaningv Naming theory (Plato) 唯名论v The conceptualist view 概念论v Contextualism (Bloomfield) 语境论v Behaviorism 行为论The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. （P63）Ogden and Richards: semantic triangleThe symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words and phrases);The referent refers to the object in the world of experience;Thought or reference refers to concept.The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word. Contextualism (Bloomfield) 语境论Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, contextelements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:Situational context: spatiotemporal situationLinguistic context: the probability of a words co-occurrence or collocation.Behaviorism 行为论Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”. The story of Jack and Jill:Lexical meaning(词汇意义)Sense and reference（意义和指称） are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning. Major sense relationsv Synonymy 同义现象v Antonymy 反义现象v Polysemy 多义现象v Homonymy 同行异义v Hyponymy 下义关系Synonymy 同义现象Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 1) Dialectal synonyms- synonyms used in different regional dialects, e.g. autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol gasoline 2) Stylistic synonyms-synonyms differing in style, e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning, e.g.collaborator- accomplice,4) Collocational synonyms, e.g. accuseof,chargewith, rebukefor; 5) Semantically different synonyms, e.g. amaze, astound,the difference between Polysemy and Homonymy（一词多义与同行意义的区别）Polysemy-the same one word may have more than one meaningHomonymy- the phenomenon that words having different meanings has the same formv Homophone（同音异义） - when two words are identical in sound, e.g. rain-reign, night/knight, v Homogragh（同形异义） - when two words are identical in spelling, e.g. tear(n.)-tear(v.), lead(n.)-lead(v.), v Complete homonym（完全同形异义）- when two words are identical in both sound and spelling, e.g. ball, bank, watch, scale, fast, Hyponomy（上下异义）- the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.Superordinate（上座标词more general）Hyponyms（下义词more specific）Antonyms(反义现象)Gradable antonyms（级别反义词）-there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）-the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female, Relational opposites（关系反义词）-exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-belowSense relations between sentences（句子之间的意义关系）v (1) X is synonymous with Y（XY同义）X: The boy killed the cat.Y: The cat was killed by the boy.（If X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false.）v (2) X is inconsistent with Y（XY对立）X: He is single.Y: He has a wife.（If X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true）v (3) X entails Y（X包含Y）X: Marry has been to Beijing. Y: Marry has been to China.（If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.）v (4) X presupposes Y（X预设Y，Y是X的先决条件）X: His bike needs repairing.Y: He has a bike.（If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.）v (5) X is a contradiction（X是一个矛盾）My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.v (6) X is semantically anomalous（X语意破格）The man is pregnant.Analysis of meaningComponential analysis (成分分析法)Predication analysis (述谓分析法)Componential analysis- a way to analyze lexicalmeaning. The approach is based on the belief thatthe meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,v Man: +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALEv Boy: +HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALEv Woman: +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALEv Girl: +HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALEPredication analysis(1)The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked outby adding up all the meanings of its component words(2)There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning(3) Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions. An argument（变元） is a logical participant in a predication largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence.A predicate（谓词） is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence. Chapter 6 Pragmatics（语用学）the study of language in use or language communication; the study of the use of context to make inference about meaning. the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communicationPragmatics vs. semantics（语用学和语义学的区别）Semantics- is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration). Pragmatics- the study of the intended meaning of aspeaker (taking context into consideration),. e.g “Today is Sunday”, semantically, it means that today is the first day of the week; pragmatically, you can meana lot by saying this, all depending on the context and theintention of the speaker, say, making a suggestion or giving an invitation Context（语境）- a basic concept in the study of pragmatics.It is generally considered as constituted knowledge sharedby the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background, situation (time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship betweenthe speaker and the hearer, etc.Two types of utterances（话语）（会判断）Constatives (叙述句) - statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable;Performatives (施为句) - sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.According to Austins new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.（知道定义，会判断）The locutionary act（言内行为）an act of saying something i.e. an act of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance); The illocutionary act（言外行为）an act performed in saying something:In saying X, I was doing Y (The intention of the speaker while speaking). The perlocutionary act（言后行为）an act performed as a result of saying something:by saying X and doing Y, I did Z. Searles classification of speech acts (1969)（舍尔对言语行为的分类）选择题v Assertives/representatives(陈述) v Directives(指令) v Commissives(承诺) v Expressives(表达) v Declarations(宣布) Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)（会话原则）Cooperative principle (CP合作原则)- According to Grice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe.Four maxims of CPThe maxim of quality（数量原则）-Do not say what you believe to be false.-Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity（质量原则）-Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange. -Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.The maxim of relation（关系原则）-Be relevant ( make your contribution relevant).The maxim of manner（方式原则）-Avoid obscurity of expression.-Avoid ambiguity.-Be brief.-Be orderly. Chapter 7 Language change（语言变化）Sound changesMorphological and syntactic changes Vocabulary changesChapter 8 Language and society（语言与社会）What are the varieties of language? 什么是语言的变体The varieties of language are the actual manifestations ofthe general notion of the language and they are assumed to be related both to the language users and to the use towhich language is put. Varieties related to the user are known as dialects and varieties relates to use as registers. Register(语域) in a restricted sense（狭义）, refers to the variety of language related to ones occupation. In a broader sense（广义）, according to Halliday, “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, mode of discourseField of discourse（语场）: what is going on: to the area of operatio