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摘要3

ABSTRACT3

1 引言4

1.1电动平车简介4

1.1.1 轨道供电式电动平车4

1.1.2 蓄电池式4

2 设计任务及确定系统方案5

2.1设计内容简介5

2.2主要技术参数5

2.3 系统方案确定6

2.3.1 平车动作描述6

2.3.2 平车运动程序设计6

2.3.3 电气控制6

2.3.4 电动平车技术要求8

3 电动平车机械结构设计9

3.1 原动机选择9

3.1.1 方案比较10

3.1.2 方案确定10

3.2 电动平车传动装置总体设计12

3.2.1 平车车轮设计12

3.2.2平车总传动比12

3.2.3 传动比的分配13

3.2.4 平车传动装置的运动和动力参数13

3.3 电动平车传动机构设计14

3.3.1减速器的选择与计算14

3.3.2 链传动设计15

3.4电动平车轮轴的设计17

3.4.1主动轴的设计及校核17

3.4.2 从动轴的机构设计23

3.5 滚动轴承的选择和计算25

3.5.1滚动轴承的选择25

3.5.2 滚动轴承寿命计算及润滑25

3.6 连接的选择和计算28

3.6.1 键连接的选择和计算28

4 整条生产线电气控制系统的设计30

4.1 PLC选择30

4.2 运动分析30

4.3 四种运动情况分析31

4.4 输入点地址分配33

4.5 输出点地址分配35

4.6 控制柜设计36

4.7 电动平车电气控制37

本章附录39

总结64

参考文献65

附录科技文章翻译67

转盘换轨电动平车系统—电动平车设计

摘要

自动生产线转盘换轨电动平车系统已被广泛应用于各种生产车间，它提高了生产效率，降低了生产成本，可根据厂房空间具体设计，是许多企业的首选方案。

本书主要介绍了转盘电动平车系统中电动平车的设计，包括整个系统的简介、电动平车的整体设计及电气控制系统设计。电动平车传动机构的设计计算。

关键词：电动平车，传动机构，电动转盘，设计计算，控制系统设计。

Trolley wheel flat car system —electric flat car design

ABSTRACT

Automatic production line for trolley wheel flat car system has been widely used in various production workshop,It improves productivity and lower production costs it can space in accordance with the specific plant design and it's the first choice for many enterprises program.

This book introduces the electric wheel flat car flat car electric system design, including brief description of the entire system, electric flat car's overall design and electric Control System design, electric flat car body design。

Key words： Electric flat car, transmission, electric wheel, design calculations, control system design.

第一章引言

在现代厂房、车库内货物转运过程中，电动平车以其装卸方便、承载能力强、易操纵而充当着重要的角色，电动平车主要有以下形式.

1.1.1轨道供电式电动平车

KPJ系列是卷筒供电电动平车，以电缆卷筒交流380V供电。电缆卷筒为磁滞耦合式，确保电缆受力均匀不易拉坏。交流380V给平车上YZ起重冶金用电机提供电力，电机拖动平车运行。平车运行时电缆卷筒自动将电缆卷起或放出，受卷线筒供电长度影响，一般最大运行距离小于200m。

　　KPD系列是36V单相（三相）低压轨道供电电动平车，以轨道滑触线供电。地面降压变压器控制柜将单相（三相）交流380V降压至单相（三相）36V，经轨道滑触线馈送给平车，再经车载升压变压器升压为单相（三相）交流380V。给平车用单相电容电机提供电力（三相时为YZ起重冶金用电机）。由于不用电缆，故安全可靠、不怕烫，不怕砸，不妨碍交叉运输，易实现遥控和自动化，给厂区运输布置以很大方便。但其轨道施工要求较高，须保证轨道绝缘，超过一定的运行距离时轨道应加铜排补偿线。运行距离较长时还必须增加降压变压器个数。

　　由于KPD 平车起动时流经轨道的起动电流非常大（达1000A），此时轨道末端有很大的电压降，造成单相电容电机起动困难，故单相KPD平车最大载重吨位为50吨，载重50吨以上时采用三相36V低压轨道供电，YZ起重冶金用电机。

产品KPDZ既继承了KPD平车的优点又避免了原型号起动困难，运行距离短的缺点。KPDZ平车以车载整流装置将轨道上的单相（或三相）交流36V整流成直流36V，拖动直流牵引电机使平车运行，直流电机与交流电机相比有不易烧损，起动力矩大，过载能力强的优点。即使由于轨道绝缘老化等原因，在欠压的工况下仍能可靠工

1.1.2蓄电池式

KPX系列是蓄电池电动平车，以蓄电池供电。蓄电池给直流牵引电机提供电力，直流电机拖动平车运行。直流电机与交流电机相比有不易烧损，起动力矩大，过载能力强的优点。运行距离不受限制。它比KPJ、KPD两种系列平车具有更大的安全性能和机动性灵活性，运行距离不受

全部文件.jpg

平车装配图.jpg

主动轴.jpg

字数统计.jpg

内容简介：: 本章附录第一种情况的语句表如下：LD SM0.1 LPSA I2.3S S0.0, 1LRDA I2.4S S0.1, 1LRDA I2.5S S0.2, 1LRDA I2.6S S0.3, 1LRDA I2.7S S0.4, 1LRDA I3.0S S0.5, 1LRDA I3.1S S0.6, 1LPPA I3.2S S0.7, 1LSCR S0.0LDN Q0.7AN Q1.0AN Q1.1AN Q1.2AN Q1.3AN Q1.4AN Q1.5AN I0.1= Q0.6LD I0.0SCRT S1.0SCRELSCR S0.1LDN Q0.6AN Q1.0AN Q1.1AN Q1.2AN Q1.3AN Q1.4AN Q1.5A I0.1= Q0.7LD I0.0SCRT S1.0SCRELSCR S0.2LDN Q0.6AN Q0.7AN Q1.1AN Q1.2AN Q1.3AN Q1.4AN Q1.5AN I0.1= Q1.0LD I0.0SCRT S1.0SCRELSCR S0.3LDN Q0.6AN Q0.7AN Q1.0AN Q1.2AN Q1.3AN Q1.4AN Q1.5AN I0.1= Q1.1LDN Q0.6AN Q0.7AN Q1.0AN Q1.2AN Q1.3AN Q1.4AN Q1.5AN I0.1= Q1.1SCRELSCR S0.4LDN Q0.6AN Q0.7AN Q1.0AN Q1.1AN Q1.3AN Q1.4AN Q1.5AN I0.1= Q1.2LD I0.0SCRT S1.1SCRELSCR S0.5LDN Q0.6AN Q0.7AN Q1.0AN Q1.1AN Q1.2AN Q1.4AN Q1.5AN I0.1= Q1.3LD I0.0SCRT S1.1SCRELSCR S0.6LDN Q0.6AN Q0.7AN Q1.0AN Q1.1AN Q1.2AN Q1.3AN Q1.5AN I0.1= Q1.4LD I0.0SCRT S1.1SCRELSCR S0.7LDN Q0.6AN Q0.7AN Q1.0AN Q1.1AN Q1.2AN Q1.3AN Q1.4AN I0.1= Q1.5LD I0.0SCRT S1.1SCRELSCR S1.0LDN I0.1LPSAN M0.3AN I1.6= Q0.1LRD= Q0.0LPP= M0.0LD I0.2O I0.3SCRT S1.2SCRELSCR S1.1LDN I0.1LPSAN M0.3AN I1.6= Q0.1LRD= Q0.0LPP= M0.1LD I0.2O I0.3SCRT S1.2SCRELSCR S1.2LDN I0.1AN I1.6AN M0.2TON T37, 40= Q0.2= Q0.3= M0.3LD T37SCRT S1.3SCRELSCR S1.3LDN M0.2= Q0.4LD SM0.0LPSA I0.4SCRT S1.4LPPA I0.5SCRT S1.5SCRELSCR S1.4LD M0.0AN I0.1AN I1.6TON T38, 40= Q0.5= M0.2LD T38SCRT S1.6SCRELSCR S1.5LD M0.1AN I0.1AN I1.6TON T39, 40= Q0.5= M0.2LD T39SCRT S1.7SCRELSCR S1.6LD SM0.0= Q1.4LD SM0.0LPSA I0.6SCRT S2.0LRDA I0.7SCRT S2.1LRDA I1.0SCRT S2.2LPPA I1.1SCRT S2.3SCRELSCR S1.7、LD SM0.0= Q0.1LD SM0.0LPSA I1.2SCRT S2.4LRDA I1.3SCRT S2.5LRDA I1.4SCRT S2.6LPPA I1.5SCRT S2.7SCRELSCR S2.0LD Q0.6R Q0.0, 15R Q0.0, 4R S2.0, 8SCRELSCR S2.1LD Q0.7R Q0.0, 15R M0.0, 4R S2.0, 8SCRELSCR S2.2LD Q1.0R Q0.0, 15R M0.0, 4R S2.0, 8SCRELSCR S2.3LD Q1.1R Q0.0, 15R M0.0, 4R S2.0, 8SCRELSCR S2.4LD Q1.2R Q0.0, 15R M0.0, 4R S2.0, 8SCRELSCR S2.5LD Q1.3R Q0.0, 15R M0.0, 4R S2.0, 8SCRELSCR S2.6LD Q1.4R Q0.0, 15R M0.0, 4R S2.0, 8SCRELSCR S2.7LD Q1.5R Q0.0, 15R M0.0, 4R S2.0, 8SCRE第二种情况的语句表如下：LD SM0.1LPSA I3.5S S0.0, 1LPPA I3.6S S0.1, 1LSCR S0.0LDN I0.1= M0.0= Q1.7LD I0.0SCRT S0.2SCRELSCR S0.1LDN I0.1= M0.1= Q2.0LD I0.0SCRT S0.2SCRELSCR S0.2LDN I0.1LPSAN I1.6AN M0.3= Q0.1LPP= Q0.0LD I0.4O I0.5SCRT S0.3SCRELSCR S0.3LDN I0.1AN I1.6AN M0.2TON T37, 40= Q0.2= Q0.3= M0.3LD T37SCRT S0.4SCRELSCR S0.4LD M0.2= Q0.4LD SM0.0LPSA I0.2SCRT S0.5LPPA I0.3SCRT S0.6SCRELSCR S0.5LD M0.0AN I0.1AN I1.6TON T38, 40= M0.2= Q0.5LD T38SCRT S0.7SCRELSCR S0.7LD SM0.0= Q1.4LD I0.1O I3.3O I3.4SCRT S1.1SCRELSCR S0.6LD M0.1AN I0.1AN I1.6TON T39, 40= M0.2= Q0.5LD T39SCRT S1.0SCRELSCR S1.0LD SM0.0= Q0.1LD I0.1O I3.3O I3.4SCRT S1.1SCRELSCR S1.1LD SM0.0R Q0.0, 15R M0.0, 3R S1.1, 1SCRE第三种情况的语句表如下：LD SM0.1LPSA I2.3S S0.0, 1LRDA I2.4S S0.1, 1LRDA I2.5S S0.2, 1LRDA I2.6S S0.3, 1LRDA I2.7S S0.4, 1LRDA I3.0S S0.5, 1LRDA I3.1S S0.6, 1LPPA I3.2S S0.7, 1LSCR S0.0LDN Q0.7AN Q1.0AN Q1.1AN I0.1= Q0.6LD I0.0SCRT S1.0SCRELSCR S0.1LDN Q0.6AN Q1.0AN Q1.1AN I0.1= Q0.7LD I0.0SCRT S1.0SCRELSCR S0.2LDN Q0.6AN Q0.7AN Q1.1AN I0.1= Q1.0LD I0.0SCRT S1.0SCRELSCR S0.3LDN Q0.6AN Q0.7AN Q1.0AN I0.1= Q1.1LD I0.0SCRT S1.0SCRELSCR S0.4LDN Q1.3AN Q1.4AN Q1.5AN I0.1= Q1.2LD I0.0SCRT S2.1SCRELSCR S0.5LDN Q1.2AN Q1.4AN Q1.5AN I0.1= Q1.3LD I0.0SCRT S2.1SCRELSCR S0.6LDN Q1.2AN Q1.3AN Q1.5AN I0.1= Q1.4LD I0.0SCRT S2.1SCRELSCR S0.7LDN Q0.2AN Q1.3AN Q1.4AN I0.1= Q1.5LD I0.0SCRT S2.1SCRELSCR S1.0LDN I0.1LPSAN M0.0AN I1.6= Q0.1LPP= Q0.0LD I0.5SCRT S1.1SCRELSCR S1.1LDN I0.1AN M0.1AN I1.6TON T37, 40= Q0.2= Q0.3= M0.0LD T37SCRT S1.2SCRELSCR S1.2LD SM0.0= Q0.4LD I0.4SCRT S1.3SCRELSCR S1.3LDN I0.1AN I1.6TON T38, 40= Q0.5= M0.1LD T38SCRT S1.4SCRELSCR S1.4LD SM0.0= Q1.4LD SM0.0LPSA I0.6SCRT S1.5LRDA I0.7SCRT S1.6LRDA I1.0SCRT S1.7LPPA I1.1SCRT S2.0SCRELSCR S1.5LD Q0.6R Q0.0, 15R S1.5, 4R M0.0, 2SCRELSCR S1.6LD Q0.7R Q0.0, 15R S1.5, 4R M0.0, 2SCRELSCR S1.7LD Q1.0R Q0.0, 15R S1.5, 4R M0.0, 2SCRELSCR S2.0LD Q1.1R Q0.0, 15R S1.5, 4R M0.0, 2SCRE LSCR S2.1LDN I0.1LPSAN M0.2AN I1.6= Q0.1LPP= Q0.0LD I0.4SCRT S2.2SCRELSCR S2.2LDN I0.1AN M0.3AN I1.6TON T39, 40= Q0.2= Q0.3= M0.2LD T39SCRT S2.3SCRELSCR S2.3LD SM0.0= Q0.4LD I0.5SCRT S2.4SCRELSCR S2.4LDN I0.1AN I1.6TON T40, 40= Q0.5= M0.3LD T40SCRT S2.5SCRELSCR S2.5LD SM0.0= Q1.4LD SM0.0LPSA I1.2SCRT S2.6LRDA I1.3SCRT S2.7LRDA I1.4SCRT S3.0LPPA I1.5SCRT S3.1SCRELSCR S2.6LD Q1.2R Q0.0, 15R S2.6, 4R M0.2, 2SCRELSCR S2.7LD Q1.3R Q0.0, 15R S2.6, 4R M0.2, 2SCRELSCR S3.0LD Q1.4R Q0.0, 15R S2.6, 4R M0.2, 2SCRELSCR S3.1LD Q1.5R Q0.0, 15R S2.6, 4R M0.2, 2SCRE58附录 Introduction to Modern Control TheoryIntroduction to Modern Control TheorySeveral factors provided the stimulus for the development of modern control theory: a. The necessary of dealing with more realistic models of system.b. The shift in emphasis towards optimal control and optimal system design. c. The continuing developments in digital computer technology. d. The shortcoming of previous approaches. e. Recognition of the applicability of well-known methods in other fields of knowledge.The transition from simple approximate models, which are easy to work with, to more realistic models, produces two effects. First, a large number of variables must be included in the models. Second, a more realistic model is more likely to contain nonlinearities and time-varying parameters. Previously ignored aspects of the system, such as interactions with feedback through the environment, are more likely to be included. With an advancing technological society, there is a trend towards more ambitious goals. This also means dealing with complex system with a large number of interacting components. The need for greater accuracy and efficiency has changer the emphasis on control system performance. The classical specifications in terms of percent overshoot, setting time, bandwidth, etc. have in many cases given way to optimal criteria such as mini mum energy, minimum cost, and minimum time operation. Optimization of these criteria makes it even more difficult to avoid dealing with unpleasant nonlinearities. Optimal control theory often dictates that nonlinear time-varying control laws are used, even if the basic system is linear and time-invariant. The continuing advances in computer technology have had three principal effects on the controls field. One of these relates to the gigantic supercomputers. The size and the class of the problems that can now be modeled, analyzed, and controlled are considerably large than they were when the first edition of this book was written. The second impact of the computer technology has to so with the proliferation and wide availability of the microcomputers in homes and I the work place, classical control theory was dominated by graphical methods because at the time that was the only way to solve certain problems, Now every control designer has easy access to powerful computer packages for systems analysis and design. The old graphical methods have not yet disappeared, but have been automated. They survive because of the insight and intuition that they can provide, some different techniques are often better suited to a computer. Although a computer can be used to carry out the classical transform-inverse transform methods, it is used usually more efficient for a computer to integrate differential equations directly.The third major impact of the computers is that they are now so commonly used as just another component in the control systems. This means that the discrete-time and digital system control now deserves much more attention than Modern control theory is well suited to the above trends because its time-domain techniques and its mathematical language (matrices, linear vector spaces, etc.) are ideal when dealing with a computer. Computers are a major reason for the existence of state variable methods.Most classical control techniques were developed for linear constant coefficient systems with one input and one output (perhaps a few inputs and outputs). The language of classical techniques is the Laplace or Z-transform and transfer functions. When nonlinearities ad time variations are present, the very basis for these classical techniques is removed. Some successful techniques such as phase-plane methods, describing function s, and other ad hoc methods, have been developed to alleviant this shortcoming.However, the greatest success has been limited to low-order systems. The state variable approach of modern control theory provides a uniform and powerful method of representing systems of arbitrary order, linear or nonlinear, with time-varying or constant coefficient. It provides an ideal formulation for computer implementation and is responsible for much of the progress in optimization theory. Modern control theory is a recent development in the field of control. Therefore, the name is justified at least as a descriptive title. However, the foundations of modern control theory are to be found in other well-established fields. Representing a system in terms of state variables is equivalent to the approach of Hamiltonian mechanics, using generalized coordinates and generalized moment. The advantages of this approach have been well-known I classical physics for many years. The advantages of using matrices when dealing with simultaneous equations of various kinds have long been appreciated in applied mathematics. The field of linear algebra also contributes heavily to modern control theory. This is due to the concise notation, the generality of the results, and the economy of thought that linear algebra provides. Mechanism of Surface Finish Production There are basically five mechanisms which contribute to the production of a surface which have been machined. There are: (1) The basic geometry of the cutting process. In, for example, single point turning the tool will advance a constant distance axially per revolution of the work piece and the resultant surface will have on it, when viewed perpendicularly to the direction of tool feed motion, a series of cusps which will have a basic form which replicates the shape of the tool in cut. (2) The efficiency of the cutting operation. It has already been mentioned that cutting with unstable built-up-edges will produce a surface which contains hard built-up-edge fragments which will result in a degradation of the surface finish. It can also be demonstrated that cutting under adverse conditions such as apply when using large feeds small rake angles and low cutting speeds, besides producing conditions which continuous shear occurring in the shear zone, tearing takes place, discontinuous chips of uneven thickness are produced, and the resultant surface is poor. This situation is particularly noticeable when machining very ductile materials such as copper and aluminum. (3) The stability of the machine tool. Under some combinations of cutting conditions: work piece size , method of clamping, and cutting tool rigidity relative to the machine tool structure, instability can be set up in the tool which causes it to vibrate. Under some conditions the vibration will built up and unless cutting is stopped considerable damage to both the cutting tool and work piece may occur. This phenomenon is known as chatter and in axial turning is characterized by long pitch helical bands on the work piece surface and short pitch undulations on the transient machined surface.(4) The effectiveness of removing sward. In discontinuous chip production machining, such as milling or turning of brittle materials, it is expected that the chip (sward) will leave the cutting zone either under gravity or with the assistance of a jet of cutting fluid and that they will not influence the cut surface in any way. However, when continuous chip production is evident, unless steps ate taken to control the swarf it is likely that it will impinge on the cut surface and mark it. Inevitably, this marking beside a looking unattractive, often results in a poorer surface finishing, (5) The effective clearance angle on the cutting tool. For certain geometries of minor cutting edge relief and clearance angles it is possible to cut on the major cutting edge and burnish on the minor cutting edge. This can produce a good surface finish but, of course, it is strictly a combination of metal cutting and metal forming and is not to be recommended as a practical cutting method. However, due to cutting tool wear, these conditions occasionally arise and lead to a marked change in the surface characteristics.Surface Finishing and Dimensional ControlProducts that have been completed to their proper shape and size frequently require some type of surface finishing to enable than to satisfactorily fulfill their function. In some cases, tit is necessary to improve the physical properties of the surface material for resistance to penetration or abrasion. In many manufacturing processes, the product surface is left with dirt, chips, grease, or other harmful material upon it. Assemblies that are made of different materials, or from the same materials processed in different manners, many require some special surface treatment to provide uniformity of appearance. Surface finishing many sometimes become an intermediate step processing. For instance, cleaning and polishing are usually essential before any kind of plating process. Some of the cleaning procedures are also used for improving surface smoothness on mating parts and for removing burrs and sharp corners, which might be harmful in later use. Another important need for surface finishing is for corrosion protection in a variety of environments. The type of protection procedure will depend largely upon the anticipated exposure, with due consideration to the material being protected and the economic factors involved. Satisfying the above objectives necessitates the use of main surface-finishing methods that involve chemical change of the surface mechanical work affecting surface properties, cleaning by a variety of methods, and the application of protective coatings, organic and metallic. In the early days of engineering, the mating of parts was achieved by machining one part as nearly as possible to the required size, machining the mating part nearly to size, and then completing its machining, continually offering the other part to it, until the desired relationship was obtained. If it was inconvenient to offer one par to the other part during machining, the final work was done at the bench by a fitter, who scraped the mating parts until the desired fit was obtained, the fitter therefore being a fitter in the literal sense. It is obvious that the two parts would have to remain together, and in the event of one having to be replaced, the fitting would have to be done all over again. I n these days, we expect to be able to purchase a replacement for a broken part, and for it to function correctly without the need for scraping and other fitting operations.When one part can be used off the shelf to replace another of the same dimension and material specification, the parts are said to be interchangeable. A system of interchangeability usually lowers the production costs as there is no need for an expensive, fiddling operation, and it benefits the customer in the event of the need to replace worn parts. Limits and TolerancesMachine parts are manufactured so they are interchangeable. In other words, each part of a machine or mechanism is made to a certain size and shape so it will fit into any other machine or mechanism of the same type. To make the part interchangeable, each individual part must be made to a size that will fit the mating part in the correct way. It is not only impossible, but also impractical to make many parts to an exact size. This is because machines are not perfect, and the tools become worn. A slight variation from the exact size is always allowed. The amount of this variation depends on the kind of part being manufactured. For example, a part might be made 6 in. long with a variation allowed of 0.003(three thousandths) in. above and below this size. Therefore, the part could be 5.997 to 6.003 in. and still be the correct size. These are known as the limits. The difference between upper and lower limits is called the tolerance.A tolerance is the total permissible variation in the size of a part.The basic size is that size from which limits of size are derived by the application of allowances and tolerances.Sometimes the limit is allowed in only one direction. This is known as unilateral tolerance. Unilateral tolerancing is a system of dimensioning where the tolerance (that is variation) is shown I only one direction from the nominal size. Unilateral tolerancing allow the changing of tolerance on a hole or shaft without seriously affecting the fit. When the tolerance is in both directions from the basic size, it is known as a bilateral tolerance (plus and minus). Bilateral tolerancing is a system of dimensioning where the tolerance (that is variation) is split and is shown on either side of the nominal size. Limit dimensioning is a system of dimensioning where only the maximum and minimum dimensions are shown. Thus, the tolerance is the difference between these two dimensions.Introduction of Machining of:Machining as a shape-producing method is the most universally used and the most important of all manufacturing processes. Machining is a shape-producing process in which a power-driven device causes material to be removed in chip form. Most machining is done with equipment that supports both the work piece and cutting tool although in some cases portable equipment is used with unsupported work piece.Low setup cost for small quantities. Machining has two applications in manufacturing. For casting, forging, and pressworking, each specific shape to be produced, even one part, nearly always has a high tooling cost. The shapes that may be produced by welding depend to a large degree on the shapes of raw material that are available. By making use of generally high cost equipment but without special tooling, it is possible, by machining, to start with nearly any form of raw material, so long as the exterior dimensions are great enough, and produce any desired shape from any material. Therefore, machining is usually the preferred method for producing one or a few parts, even when the design of the part would logically lead to casting, forging or pressworking if a high quantity were to be produced. Close accuracies, good finishes. The second application for machining is based on the high accuracies and surface finishes possible. Many of the parts machined in low quantities would be produced with lower but acceptable tolerances if produced I high quantities by some other process. On the other hand, many parts are given their general shapes by some high quantity deformation process and machined only on selected surfaces where high accuracies are needed. Internal threads, for example, are seldom produced by any means other than machining and small holes in pressworked parts may be machined following the pressworking operations. 现代的控制理论简介下列几方面为现代控制理论发展的促进因素: 1.处理更多的现实模型系统的必要性2.强调向最佳的控制和最佳的系统设计的升级3.数字化计算机技术的持续发展.4.当前技术的不成熟.众所周知的方法在其它知识领域的适用性得到承认.从容易解决的简单近似的模型到更多的现实模型的转变产生了两种效果：首先，模型必须包括很多的变量。其次，一个十分逼真的模型是尽可能的包括非线性和随时间变化的参数。早先的忽略了系统的一些方面，例如很有可能的一方面就是在环境中有着反馈的交互作用。在现代科技高度发达的社会，存在一种非常雄心的目标的趋势，这也意味着要处理有着很多相互关联成分的复杂系统，高精确度与高效率的需要改变了控制系统的执行重点。在超频百分比，时间设置，频宽等等方面的经典规范，在很多情况下解决了优化标准如最小能量，最小花费，最小时间控制，优化这些标准时很难避免和不开心的非线性打交道。即使基础系统是线性的和不随时间变化的，优化控制理论显示非线性时间变化控制也被应用到了。不停发展的计算机技术在控制领域创造了三条最重要的影响。其中一项是有关数字化的超级计算机，较之这本书首印时期，现在能模拟，分析，控制的问题的大小和种类都要大得惊人。计算机技术的第二个问题就是必须处理微型计算机在家庭和工作地的扩散与广泛的可靠性。古典的控制理论是以图画似的方法为主导的. 因为在时间那是唯一的解决确定的问题的途径。为了系统分析和设计,现在每一个控制设计者很容易有机会接近强大的计算机内部。老的图画似的方法不但没有消失, 并且还使其自动化了.它们之所以能生存是因为提供了洞察力与直觉，许多不同的技术经常能更适合于计算机。虽然计算机能被用于执行经典的改变-到转的改变方法，但它通常更多的有效用于直接整合微分方程。计算机的第三个，也是最重要的方面，就是它们现在已经如此普遍地应用于控制系统，俨然其中的一员。其价格，型号和稳定性使得能够在许多系统中常规的使用。这也意味着离散的-时间和数字的系统控制现在比在它过去更受人关注。现代的控制理论更适合上面的趋势. 因为它的时间-领域技术和它的数学的语言(公式, 线性向量空间, 等等.) 是处理计算机时的方法。. 计算机是状态变量方法存在的主要原因。最多的古典的控制技术是为了发展只有一个输入和一个输出(或许少许输入和输出)线性常数系数系统. 古典的技术的语言是拉普内斯或Z-改变和传送功能. 就在那个时候非线性和时间变量出现了, 这些古典的技术的基础远离了. 一些成功的技术例如阶段-平面方法, 描述函数, 和其他的特别方法,发展并缓和了这些缺点。然而, 最大的成功被这些低级命令系统限制了. 现代的控制理论的状态变量接近供应统一和强大的方法表现任意的订购的系统, 线的或非线性的, 有时间-改变或常数系数.它为形成计算机的执行提供了理论，同时也对大多数优化理论的进程负有责任。现代的控制理论是在控制领域的最近发展. 因此, 这个名字至少替换了一个描述性的标题. 然而, 现代的控制理论的基础在其它已知领域也被发现了. 用一般化坐标和一般化瞬间表现一个系统时，在相关状态变量上，其等同到接近哈密尔敦函数机械学,. 这接近的优势在古典的物理学已经闻名了许多年. 应用数学领域中，在处理各种形式相类似的方程时，利用母式的优越性早已表现出来了，线性代数学也很大程度上归功于现代的控制理论。这是由于线性代数学所提供的简明的符号, 结果的普遍性, 和思考的效率。表面粗糙度的技术在已经进行机械加工过的表面，有五种基本的影响其表面粗糙度的技术。1、切断过程的基本几何学. 例如，在单点车削时，工件每转一周，刀具就沿轴线方向进给一个固定的距离。从垂直刀具进给的方向观察，所得到的表面上有很多尖角，这些尖角的形状与切削刀具的形状相同。2、切断操作的效率. 已经提过的用不稳定的切削瘤切削将会加工出包含有坚硬的切削瘤碎片在上面的表面，而这些将会导致表明粗糙度的等级降低。已经证明，在采用进给量大，前角小，切削速度低的不利情况下，除了产生不稳定的切削瘤外，切削过程也会不稳定。同时，在切削区里进行的也不再是切削，而是撕裂，导致厚度不均匀，不连续的切削，加工出的表面质量差。在切削加工延展性良好的金属材料，如铜和铝时，这种情况就尤为突出。 3、机械工具的稳定性。在许多联合切削的情况下：工件的大小，夹紧的方法，和切断工具相对于机床结构的坚硬度，不稳定性是建立在使其变化的工具上的。在某些

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