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摘要

冲击回转钻进技术的设想始于欧洲。从上世纪五十年代开始，在美国，加拿大和前苏联才研制出几种具有实用意义的液动冲击器。我国从1958年底开始在原地质矿产部勘探技术研究所对液动冲击回转钻进技术进行研究，几乎与世界同步。

液动冲击器是液动冲击回转钻探的关键设备。随着中国现代化建设的不断推进和发展，国民经济增长对液动冲击回转钻探不断提出更高的要求，所以，加速液动冲击器的研究势在必行。

本文在综述了国内外液动冲击回转钻探和液动冲击回转钻探核心机械—液动冲击器的基础上，研究阀式反作用液动冲击器的工作原理和结构特点，并提出了计算液动冲击力和冲击频率的方法。通过分析，指出阀式反作用液动冲击器适用于中到中硬以上的岩层，并且应尽量增大泥浆排量，采用较大刚度的冲锤弹簧，以使冲击器的优点得到充分发挥。并针对液动冲击器的关键零件—冲锤弹簧进行了详细的分析计算和验算。并从技术和经济学角度分析了液动冲击回转钻探的技术经济效果。本文主要作了以下工作：

1）详细阐述了液动冲击回转钻探；

2）详细介绍了各种液动冲击器；

3）分析了反作用液动冲击器的结构原理和结构特点

4）阀式反作用液动冲击器的性能分析和参数计算。

关键词：液动回转钻探反作用冲击器

Abstract

The text ,basing on summing up the studying of nation inside and outside n circumgyrate drilling of fluid move concussion and fluid move impulsion implement of counteractive of valve style,study working principle and frame characteristic of fluid move impulsion implement of counteractive of valve style.And it advances the measure that account the wallop and concussion frequency.Overpass the analysis,it indicate that the fluid move impulsion implement of counteractive of valve style is the same with the terrane that whose rigidity is middle or upwards.Besides it should accretion the arrange quantity of slop to the best of its abilities and adhibits clash spring of the greater limit to exert the excellence of impulsion implement.It also makes detailed analyzed account and checking computations in allusion to the key part of the impulsion implement,and analyses the technic economy effet of the impulsion implement.The text do mianly these work:

1)expound circumgyrate drilling of fluid move concussion particular.

2)introduce diversified impulsion implement particular.

3)analyse orking principle and frame characteristic of fluid move impulsion implement of counteractive of valve style.

4)capability analysis and parameter account of fluid move impulsion implement of counteractive of valve style.

Key words: fluid move, circumgyrate, drilling, counteractive ,concussion implement

摘要1

Abstract2

第一章液动冲击回转钻探1

1．1概述1

1．2冲击回转钻进的实质和特点2

1．3冲击回转钻进的应用范围3

1．4冲击回转钻进的发展概况4

1．5液动冲击回转钻在地质岩心钻探中技术经济效益6

第二章液动冲击器8

2．1冲击器的种类8

2．2 反作用式液动冲击器15

2．2．1 反作用式液动冲击器的结构原理15

2．2．2 反作用式液动冲击器的结构特点15

2．3 阀式反作用液动冲击器性能分析及参数计算16

2．3．1 功率特性及活塞冲锤运动特性分析16

2．3．2 参数计算16

2．4 本章小结22

第三章 ГВМС—5型液动锤23

3．1 ГВМС—5型液动锤工作原理及特点23

3．2 冲锤弹簧设计和计算24

3.2.1原始条件的确定24

3．2．2．参数计算：25

3.2.3验算27

第四章液动冲击回转钻进的发展展望27

4．1 液动冲击回转钻进的发展方向27

4．2 基础理论方面的重大课题30

4．3 应用研究30

第五章液动锤的仿真分析31

致谢35

参考文献36

1．1概述

采用冲击回转钻进技术的设想始于欧洲。1867—1887年期间，一些企图代替钻杆冲击钻的潜孔式液动冲击器相继出现，1887年在英国曾授予德国沃·布什曼以新钻井方法的专利，其技术核心就是利用泵供给的液能驱动液动冲击器对回转着的钻头进行连续冲击，从而实现冲击回转钻进。

从本世纪五十年代开始，在美国、加拿大和苏联才研制出几种具有实用意义的液动冲击器。海湾石油公司和壳牌石油公司对比进行过研究，其目的主要是应用于石油钻井及排除卡钻等，故直径较大，冲击锤有重达300kg者，且冲击频率较低。在地质矿产钻探方面国外研究最有成效的是苏联，从1900—1905年间即开展对液动冲击回转钻进技术的研究，但直到1970年才开始逐步在生产实践中得到应用，其间历经约七十年。匈牙利在六十年代研制了直径从48到160mm的五种双作用液动冲击器，其特点是组装在一专用拖车上并配有相应的泵、除砂器、取心工具、钻头和处理事故工具等，以便能够灵活运输，在施工矿区或工地为好几台钻机服务。当某台钻机遇到坚硬地层需要进行冲击回转钻时，可以及时运来“全套”的附属机具进行施工，而后又可以灵活地运往其他机台的孔段服务。匈牙利的这种液动钻探设备不但在地质矿山钻探中使用，其较大口径的液动冲击器也用于水井钻和工程施工钻探。日本对液动冲击钻的研究约有十余年的历史，比较成功的例子为利根公司研制的wH—120N型双作用式液动冲击器，其最大的特点是采用气液作为工作介质。

我国从1958年底开始在地质矿产部勘探技术研究所对液动冲击回转钻进技术进行研究。至1965年设计研究了七种不同结构形式的液动冲击器，并在周口店试验站专门建立的试验室中进行了性能对比和岩样钻进试验。其中最好的一种YZ—2型冲击器外径89mm，当供给的液量为0.2—0.3立方米每分时，冲击功为58—88J，冲击频率是16—25HZ。在试验台用硬质合金钻头钻进VII级花岗闪长岩时，最高钻进速度可达85mm/min。1966年在湖南柿竹园多金属矿进行了生产试验，最大孔深达430m。勘探技术研究所为推动此种技术的发展，曾于1963年编辑了(冲击回转钻专辑)第一辑，广泛介绍了国内外的文献资料，为液动冲击回转钻在我国的发展做了有益的工作。原北京地质学院和武汉地质学院也进行了大量的工作，培养了数批以冲击回转钻为主要内容的研究生，为系统的深入研究创立了良好的人才条尤其应当指出的是辽宁地质矿产局第九地质大队与长春地质学院等单位从1971年开始研究了一种具有独创性的sc—89和JSC—75型射流式冲击器，并于1982年获得科学技术奖，这是国内得到广泛应用的第一种液动冲击器。从1975年以后，我国除了地质系统广泛地研制了掖动冲击器外，其他几乎全部有钻探任务的兄弟部门都对此种钻进技术进行了研究，它们在生产实践中几乎部得到了肯定的好评。这种先进的钻进技术正在地质钻探、石油和天然气钻井以及各种工程钻中稳定地发展着。其技术核心——液动冲击器正逐步形成孔底动力钻的一个重要分支。

1．2冲击回转钻进的实质和特点

冲击回转钻就是在回转钻的基础上对岩石破碎工具——钻头，施加具有一定频率的冲击能量，因此对回转着的钻头不但对岩石有静的给进压力和扭矩，而且附加了一种连续的冲击动载荷。换言之，冲击回转钻就是一种带有冲击负荷的回转钻。

冲击回转钻进所以能够提高钻进效率的原因，归纳起来有下列几点：

1．冲击裁荷的特点是接触应力瞬时可达极高值，应力比较集中。所以尽管动硬度要比静硬度大，但仍易产生微裂纹。并且冲击速度愈大，岩石脆性增大，有利于裂隙发育。因此可以不大的冲击功(数个公斤米)就可破碎坚硬岩石，而静压人时则需很大的力；

2．切削刃具磨损减少。在冲击回转钻进中切削刃具的磨损减少的原因有：(a)钻进中所得的轴向压力较小，转速很低；(b)体积破碎的摩擦系数低于表面破碎时的摩擦系数，而在冲击回转钻进中容易达到体积破岩的程度；(c)钻速快，切削具的相对磨损就减小，(d)冲击破碎岩石时刃具与岩石的作用时间很短。

3．因为在冲击时还加有一定的轴向压力，改善了冲击功能的传递条件，增大了冲击效果。

4．因为高频并连续地给岩石施加冲击载荷，所以在碎岩过程中缝隙发育较完全，更有利于破碎较硬岩石。

5．因为在冲击中又有连续不断的回转切削作用，改变了冲击裁荷的传递方向，充分发挥了冲击碎岩和切削碎岩的效果。

1．3冲击回转钻进的应用范围

冲击回转钻进除了可以提高钻速外，又由于钻进中所需的轴向压力较小，转速较低，所以钻孔不易弯曲，孔内事故也较少，原材料的消耗低，

所以它是当前的一种现实可行的高效、优质、低消耗的钻进方法。特别是在中等硬度的岩石中，其效率更为显著，所以冲击回转钻进方法应用范围愈来愈广。据美国1973年和1974的统计贫科说明，使用冲击回转钻进方法完成的工作量占总工作量的23．2％一23．6％，仅次于一股的回转钻进(占62.7％一63．3％)而属第二位的钻进方法。

冲击回转钻进最适宜于钻进粗粒而不均匀的地层，在6—9级岩石中钻进效果尤为突出。近几年来冲击回转钻进不仅用于硬合金钻进，而且也应用于钢粒钻进和金刚石钻进以及牙轮钻进，适用的岩层范围扩大了。最近，苏联将冲击回转钻进应用于金刚石小口径钻进中，它不仅提高了钻进效率和钻头寿命，而且还克服了金刚石钻进裂隙发育地层、“打滑”地层和容易引起强烈弯曲的地层的困难。或因钻机开不了高速而影响孕镶钻头钻进时，用冲击回转法也可弥补其不足。

冲击回转钻进所钻的孔深和孔径日有发展。可以满足地质勘探钻进的要求。美国在石油钻井中，用巴辛格尔液动冲击器钻井深度达2750米。苏联利用ВВО—3型液动冲击器在石油钻井中可深达1280米。利用Г—3A型液动冲击器在地质钻探中孔深已达700多米。苏联近几年研制丁Г—7、Г—9型液动冲击器，并且为了增大效能，采用了ПП—70型气动孔底反射器，其孔深可达1500米或更深。

总之，冲击回转钻进方法现在已用于不同的地层和不同的钻进方法，其孔径和孔深也不断扩展，是—种很有发展前途的钻进方法。

1．4冲击回转钻进的发展概况

冲击回转钻进法的应用已有上百年的历史。早在十九世纪六十年代就有人进行丁潜孔式冲击器的试制工作。早期在法国研制过低频液动冲击器。后来在苏联和美国进行过“涡轮锤”和“涡轮振动钻”的研究工作。

二十世纪三十年代发展了风动潜孔锤。到五十到六十年代获得了较为广泛的应用。在此期间，美国在3500米的深井中，成功地进行了风动潜孔锤冲击回转钻进。随后又在水并钻和工程钻中广泛应用。到六十年代末，在我国矿山开采中推广使用了风动潜孔锤冲击回转钻进，代替了旧的钢丝绳冲击钻进。

二十世纪四十年代，苏联葛奠夫研制了滑阀式正作用液动冲击器，美国巴辛格尔也研制了活阀式正作用动冲击器。在液动冲击器的研制方面取得了很大的进展。到五十年代，美国艾莫雷研制了活阀式反作用的冲击器，到五十年代后期就出现了种类繁多的双作用的冲击器各种冲击器一直发展到现在，都得了较大的发展。

虽然苏联在1960年使用反作用式的ВВО—3型液功冲击器，在2400一2700米的深井中成功地进行了冲击回转钻进，但是总的看来，六十年代以来，在1500来以内的钻并中，使用效果较好的液动冲击器多属于正作用冲击器。

我国自1958年开始研制冲击回转钻具，许多单位在研制冲击器和冲击回转取心钻进方面进行了好多工作，但后来研究中断。从1971年起，辽宁铁岭地质队，长春地质学院等单位又先后开始研制液压射流式冲击器，取得了不少的成就。现在射流式冲击器和阀式冲击器已在地质勘探取心钻进生产中应用起来，并敢得了较好的成果。例如某队用射流冲击器钻进6—7(少最8)段岩石，取得进尺1132米的最高台月效率，江西某队用阀式冲击器钻进一万六千多米，在玄武岩、花岗岩地层中平均台月效率比钢离钻进提高30一60％。

冲击回转钻进方法虽然应用日广，但尚须进—步完善和提高。应当研究冲击回转钻进的碎岩原理，研究设计新型的冲击器，应尽先研制用于坚硬岩层的大冲击功的冲击器，泥浆钻进用的冲击器以及小口径金刚石钻进用的高频冲击器，研究冲击器的设计和计算方法；设计适应冲击回转钻进用的水泵及钻机，研究冲击回转钻进用的钻头结构、硬合金的材质和形状及其镶焊方法；制订合理的钻进工艺参数。

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内容简介：: 本科生毕业设计（论文）翻译资料中文题目：空气及天然气钻井英文题目： Air and Gas Drilling 学生姓名：学号：班级：专业指导教师：论文翻译Chapter One IntroductionThis engineering practice book has been prepared for engineers, earth scientists,and technicians who work in modern rotary drilling operations. The book derives and illustrates engineering calculation techniques associated with air and gas drilling technology. Since this book has been written for a variety of professionals and potential applications, the authors have attempted to minimize the use of field equations. Also the technical terminology used in the book should be easilyunderstood by all those who study this technology. In nearly all parts of the book,equations are presented that can be used with any set of consistent units. Although most of the example calculations use English units, a reader can easily convert to the Systeme Internationale dUnits (SI units) using the tables in Appendix A.Air and gas drilling technology is the utilization of compressed air or other gases as a rotary drilling circulating fluid to carry the rock cuttings to the surface that are generated at the bottom of the well by the advance of the drill bit. The compressed air or other gas (e.g., nitrogen or natural gas) can be used by itself, or can be injected into the well with incompressible fluids such as fresh water,formation water, or formation oil. There are three distinct operational applications for this technology: air or gas drilling operations (using only the compressed air or other gas as the circulating fluid), aerated drilling operations (using compressed air or other gas mixed with an incompressible fluid), and stable foam drilling operations (using the compressed air or other gas with an incompressible fluid to create a continuous foam circulating fluid).1.1 Rotary DrillingRotary drilling is a method used to drill deep boreholes in rock formations of the earths crust. This method is comparatively new, having been first developed by a French civil engineer, Rudolf Leschot, in 1863 3. The method was initially used to drill water wells using fresh water as the circulation fluid. Today this method is the only rock drilling technique used to drill deep boreholes (greater than 3,000 ft).It is not known when air compressors were first used for the drilling of water wells,but it is known that deep petroleum and natural gas wells were drilled utilizing portable air compressors in the 1920s 4. Pipeline gas was used to drill a natural gas well in Texas in 1935 using reverse circulation techniques 5.Today rotary drilling is used to drill a variety of boreholes. Most water wells and environmental monitoring wells drilled into bedrock are constructed using rotary drilling. In the mining industry rotary drilling is used to drill ore body test boreholes and pilot boreholes for guiding larger shaft borings. Rotary drilling techniques are used to drill boreholes for water, oil, gas, and other fluid pipelines that need to pass under rivers, highways, and other natural and man-made obstructions. Most recently, rotary drilling is being used to drill boreholes for fiber optics and other telecommunication lines in obstacle ridden areas such as cites and industrial sites. The most sophisticated application for rotary drilling is the drilling of deep boreholes for the recovery of natural resources such as crude oil, natural gas, and geothermal steam and water. Drilling boreholes for fluid resource recovery requires boreholes drilled to depths of 3,000 ft to as much as 20,000 ft.Rotary drilling is highly versatile. The rotary drilling applications given aboverequire the drilling of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rock. However, the deep drilling of boreholes for the recovery of crude oil and natural gas are almost exclusively carried out in sedimentary rock. Boreholes for the recovery of geothermal steam and water are constructed in all three rock types. The rotary drilling method requires the use of a rock cutting or crushing drill bit. Figure 1-1 shows a typical mill tooth tri-cone roller cone bit. This type of drill bit uses more of a crushing action to advance the bit in the rock (see Chapter 3 for more details).This type of bit is used primarily in the drilling of sedimentary rock.To advance the drill bit in rock requires the application of an axial force on the bit (to push the bit into the rock face), torque on the bit (to rotate the bit against the resistance of the rock face), and circulating fluid to clear the rock cuttings away from the bit as the bit generates more cuttings with its advance (see Figure 1-2).Rotary drilling is carried out with a variety of drilling rigs. These can be small“single” rigs, or larger “double” and “triple” rigs. Today most of the land rotary drilling rigs are mobile units with folding masts. A single drilling rig has a vertical space in its mast for only one joint of drill pipe. A double drilling rig has a vertical space in its mast for two joints of drill pipe and a triple drilling rig space for three joints. Table 1-1 gives the API length ranges for drill collars and drill pipe 6.Figure 1-3 shows a typical single drilling rig. Such small drilling rigs are highly mobile and are used principally to drill shallow (less than 3,000 ft in depth) water wells, environmental monitoring wells, mining related boreholes, and other geotechnical boreholes. These single rigs are usually self-propelled. The selfpropelled drilling rig in Figure 1-3 is a George E. Failing Company Star 30K.These rigs typically use Range 1 drill collars and drill pipe.Single rigs can be fitted with either an on-board air compressor, or an on-board mud pump. Some of these rigs can accommodate both subsystems. These rigs have either a dedicated prime mover on the rig deck, or have a power-take-off system which allows utilization of the truck motor as a prime mover for the drilling rig equipment (when the truck is stationary). These small drilling rigs provide axial force to the drill bit through the drill string via a chain or cable actuated pull-down system, or hydraulic pull-down system. A pull-down system transfers a portion of the weight of the rig to the top of the drill string and then to the drill bit. The torque and rotation at the top of the drill string is provided by a hydraulic tophead drive (similar to power swivel systems used on larger drilling rigs) which is moved up and down the mast (on a track) by the chain drive pull-down system. Many ofthese small single drilling rigs are capable of drilling with their masts at a 45 angle to the vertical. The prime mover for these rigs is usually diesel fueled.Figure 1-4 shows a typical double drilling rig. Such drilling rigs are also mobile and can be self-propelled or trailer mounted. Figure 1-5 shows the schematic of a self-propelled double drilling rig.The trailer mounted drilling rig in Figure 1-4 is a George E. Failing Company SS-40. These double rigs have the capability to drill to depths of approximately 10,000 ft and are used for oil and gas drilling operations, geothermal drilling operations, deep mining and geotechnical drilling operations, and water wells. Double rigs typically use Range 2 drill collars or drill pipe. These rigs are fitted with an on-board prime mover which operates the rotary table, drawworks, and mud pump. The axial force on the drill bit is provided by drill collars. The torque and rotation at the top of the drill string is provided by the kelly and the rotary table.The double drilling rigs have a “crows nest” or “derrick board” nearly midway up the mast. This allows these rigs to pull stands of two drill collar joints or two drill pipe joints. These rigs can carry out drilling operations using drilling mud (with theon-board mud pump) or using compressed air or gas drilling fluids (with external compressors). A few of these drilling rigs are capable of drilling with their masts at a 45 angle to the vertical. The prime mover for these rigs is usually diesel fueled,but can easily be converted to propane or natural gas fuels.Triple drilling rigs are available in a variety of configurations. Nearly all of these drilling rigs are assembled and erected from premanufactured sections. The vertical tower structure on these drilling rigs are called derricks. The smaller triple land rigs can drill to approximately 20,000 ft and utilize Range 2 drill collars and drill pipe. Very large triple drilling rigs are used on offshore platforms. These rigs can utilize Range 3 drill collars and drill pipe.The schematic layout in Figure 1-5 shows a typical self-propelled double drilling rig. This example rig is fitted with a mud pump for circulating drilling mud. There is a vehicle engine that is used to propel the rig over the road. The same engine is used in a power-take-off mode to provide power to the rotary table,drawworks, and mud pump. For this rig, this power-take-off engine operates a hydraulic pump which provides fluid to hydraulic motors to operate the rotary table,drawworks, and mud pump. The “crows nest” on the mast indicates that the rig is capable of drilling with a stand of two joints of drill pipe. This drilling rig utilizes a rotary table and a kelly to provide torque to the top of the drill string. The axial force on the bit is provided by the weight of the drill collars at the bottom of the drill string (there is no chain pull-down capability for this drilling rig). Thisexample schematic shows a rig with on-board equipment that can provide only drilling mud or treated water as a circulate fluid. The small air compressor at the front of the rig deck is to operate the pneumatic controls of the rig. However, this rig can easily be fitted for air and gas drilling operations. This type of drilling rig(already fitted with a mud pump), would require an auxiliary hook up to external air compressor(s) to carry out an air drilling operation. Such compressor systems andassociated equipment for air drilling operations are usually provided by asubcontractor specializing in these operations.1.2 Circulation SystemsTwo types of circulation techniques can be used for either a mud drilling system or an air or gas drilling system. These are direct circulation and reverse circulation.1.2.1 Direct CirculationFigure 1-6 shows a schematic of a rotary drilling, direct circulation mud system that would be used on a typical double (and triple) drilling rig. Direct circulation requires that the drilling mud (or treated water) flow from the slush pump (or mud pump), through the standpipe on the mast, through the rotary hose, through the swivel and down the inside of the kelly, down the inside of the drill pipe and drill collars, through the drill bit (at the bottom of the borehole) into the annulus space between the outside of the drill string and the inside of the borehole. The drilling mud entrains the rock bit cuttings and then flows with the cuttings up the annulus to the surface where the cuttings are removed from the drilling mud by the shale shaker;the drilling mud is returned to the mud tanks (where the slush pump suction side picks up the drilling mud and recirculates the mud back into the well). The slush pumps used on double (and triple) drilling rigs are positive displacement piston typepumps.For single drilling rigs, the drilling fluid is often treated fresh water in a pit dug in the ground surface and lined with an impermeable plastic liner. A heavy duty hose is run from the suction side of the on-board mud pump (see Figure 1-5) to the mud pit. The drilling water is pumped from the pit, through the pump, through an on-board pipe system, through the rotary hose, through the hydraulic tophead drive, down the inside of the drill pipe, and through the drill bit to the bottom of the well.The drilling water entrains the rock cuttings from the advance of the bit and carries the cuttings to the surface via the annulus between the outside of the drill pipe and the inside of the borehole. At the surface the drilling fluid (water) from the annulus with entrained cuttings is returned to the pit where the rock cuttings are allowed to settle out to the bottom. The pumps on single drilling rigs are small positive displacement reciprocating piston or centrifugal type.Figure 1-7 shows a detailed schematic of a direct circulation compressed air drilling system that would be used on a typical double or triple drilling rig. Direct circulation requires that atmospheric air be compressed by the compressor and then forced through the standpipe on the mast, through the rotary hose, through the swivel and down the inside of the kelly, down the inside of the drill pipe and drill collars, through the drill bit (at the bottom of the borehole) into the annulus space between the outside of the drill string and the inside of the borehole. The compressed air entrains the rock bit cuttings and then flows with the cuttings up the annulus to the surface where the compressed air with the entrained cuttings exit the circulation system via the blooey line. The compressed air and cuttings exit the blooey line into a large pit dug into the ground surface (burn pit). These pits arelined with an impermeable plastic liner.In order to safely drill boreholes to these deposits heavily weighted drilling muds are utilized. The heavy fluid column in the annulus provides the high bottomhole pressure needed to balance (or overbalance) the high pore pressure of the deposit.Figure 1-13 also shows that the heavier the drilling fluid column in the annulus the more useful the drilling fluid is for controlling high pore pressure (the arrow points downward to increasing capability to control high pore pressure). There are limits to how heavy a drilling mud can be. As was discussed above, too heavy a drilling mud results in overbalanced drilling and this can result in formation damage. But there is a greater risk to overbalanced drilling. If the drilling mud is too heavy the rock formations in the openhole section can fracture. These fracturescould result in a loss of the circulating mud which could result in a blowout.In the past decade it has been observed that drilling with a circulation fluid that has a bottomhole pressure slightly below that of the pore pressure of the fluid deposit gives near optimum results. This type of drilling is denoted as underbalanced drilling. Underbalanced drilling allows the formation to produce fluid as the drilling progresses. This lowers or eliminates the risk of formation damage and eliminates the possibility of formation fracture and loss of circulation. In general, if the pore pressure of a deposit is high, an engineered adjustment to the drilling mud weight (with additives) can yield the appropriate drilling fluid to assure underbalanced drilling. However, if the pore pressure is not unusually high then air and gas drilling techniques are required to lighten the drilling fluid column in the annulus.Figure 1-14 shows a schematic of the various drilling fluids and their respective potential for keeping formation water out of the drilled borehole. Formation water is often encountered when drilling to a subsurface target depth. This water can be in fracture and pore structures of the rock formations above the target depth. If drilling mud is used as the circulating fluid, the pressure of the mud column in the annulus is usually sufficient to keep formation water from flowing out of the exposed rock formations in the borehole. The lighter drilling fluids have lower bottomhole pressure, thus, the lower the pressure on any water in the exposed fracture or pore structures in the drilled rock formations. Figure 1-14 shows that the heavier drilling fluids have a greater ability to cope with formation water flow into to the borehole(the arrow points downward to increasing control of formation water).1.3.2 Flow CharacteristicsA comparison is made of the flow characteristics of mud drilling and air drilling in an example deep well. A schematic of this example well is shown in Figure 1-15. The well is cased from the surface to 7,000 ft with API 8 5/8 inch diameter,28.00 lb/ft nominal, casing. The well has been drilled out of the casing shoe with a 7 7/8 inch diameter drill bit. The comparison is made for drilling at 10,000 ft. The drill string in the example well is made up of (bottom to top), 7 7/8 inch diameterdrill bit, 500 ft of 6 3/4 inch outside diameter by 2 13/16 inch inside diameter drill collars, and 9,500 ft of API 4 1/2 inch diameter, 16.60 lb/ft nominal, EUS135,NC 50, drill pipe.The mud drilling hydraulics calculations are carried out assuming the drilling mud weight is 10 lb/gal (75 lb/ft3), the Bingham mud yield is 10 lb/100 ft2, and the plastic viscosity is 30 centipose. The drill bit is assumed to have three 13/32 inch diameter nozzles and the drilling mud circulation flow rate is 300 gals/minute. Figure 1-16 shows the plots of the pressures in the incompressible drilling mud as a function of depth. In the figure is a plot of the pressure inside the drill string. The pressure is approximately 1,400 psig at injection and 6,000 psig at the bottom of the inside of the drill string just above the bit nozzles. Also in the figure is a plot of the pressure in the annulus. The pressure is approximately 5,440 psig at the bottom of the annulus just below the bit nozzles and 0 psig at the top of the annulus at the surface.The pressures in Figure 1-16 reflects the hydrostatic weight of the column of drilling mud and the resistance to fluid flow from the inside surfaces of the drill string and the surfaces of the annulus. This resistance to flow results in pressure losses due to friction. The total losses due to friction are the sum of pipe wall, openhole wall, and drill bit orifice resistance to flow. This mud drilling exampleshows a drilling string design which has a open orifice or large diameter nozzle openings in the drill bit. This is reflected by the approximate 700 psi loss through the drill bit. Smaller diameter nozzles would yield higher pressure losses across the drill bit and higher injection pressures at the surface.The air drilling calculations are carried out assuming the drilling operation is at sea level. There are two compressors capable of 1,200 scfm each, so the total volumetric flow rate to the drill string is 2,400 scfm. The drill bit is assumed tohave three open orifices (0.80 inches diameter). Figure 1-17 shows the plots of the pressures in the compressible air as a function of depth. In the figure is a plot of the pressure inside the drill string. The pressure is approximately 260 psia at injection and 270 psia at the bottom of the inside of the drill string just above the bit orifices. Also in the figure is a plot of the pressure in the annulus. The pressure is approximately 260 psia at the bottom of the annulus just below the bit orifices and 14.7 psia at the end of the blooey line at the surface (top of the annulus).As in the mud drilling example, the pressures in Figure 1-17 reflects the hydrostatic weight of the column of compressed air and the resistance to air flow from the inside surfaces of the drill string and the surfaces of the annulus. This resistance to flow results in pressure losses due to friction. In this example the fluid is compressible. Considering the flow inside the drill string, the hydrostatic weight of the column dominates the flow (relative to friction losses) and this results in theinjection pressure at the surface being less than the pressure at the bottom of the drillstring (inside the drill string above the bit open orifices).Figure 1-18 shows the plots of the temperature in the incompressible drilling mud as a function of depth. The geothermal gradient for this example is 0.01F/ft. Subsurface earth is nearly an infinite heat source. The drilling mud in a mud drilling circulation system is significantly more dense than compressed air or other gases. Thus, as the drilling mud flows down the drill string and up through theannulus to the surface, heat is transferred from the rock formations through the surfaces of the borehole, through the drilling mud in the annulus, through the steel drill string to the drilling mud inside. It is assumed that the drilling mud is circulated into the top of the drill string at 60F.As the drilling mud flows down the inside of the drill string the drilling mud heats up as heat flows from the higher temperature rock formations and drilling mudi n the annulus. At the bottom of the well the drilling mud temperature reaches the bottomhole temperature of 160F. The drilling mud flowing up the annulus (usually laminar flow conditions) is heated by the geothermal heat in the rock formation.The heated drilling mud flowing in the annulus heats the outside of the drilling string and this in turn heats the drilling mud flowing down the drill string. Because of its good heat storage capabilities, the drilling mud exits the annulus with a temperature greater than the injection temperature but less than the bottomhole temperature. In this example, the temperature of the drilling mud exiting the annulus is approximately 130F.Figure 1-19 shows the plots of the temperature in the compressible air drilling fluid as a function of depth. The compressed air drilling fluid is significantly less dense than drilling mud. Thus, compressed air has poor heat storage qualities relative to drilling mud. Also, compressed air flowing in the drilling circulation system is flowing rapidly and therefore the flow is turbulent inside the drill string and in the annulus. Turbulent flow is very efficient in transferring heat from the surface of the borehole to the flowing air in the annulus and in the inside the drill string. Assuming the compressed air entering the top of the drill string is at 60F the heat rapidly transfers to heat (or cool) the air flow in the well. Under these conditions the compressed air exiting the annulus has approximately the same temperature as the air entering the top of the drill string. Figure 1-19 shows that the temperature of the compressed air at any position in the borehole is approximately the geothermal temperature at that depth. Thus, the temperature of the flowing air at the bottom of the hole is the bottomhole temperature of 160F. There is some local cooling of the air as it exits the open orifices of the drill bit at the bottom of the hole. This cooling effect is more pronounced if nozzles are used in the drill bit (when using a downhole motor ). This cooling effect is known as the Joule-Thomson effect and can be estimated 8. However, it is assumed that this effect is small and that the air flow returns very quickly to the bottomhole geothermal temperature.Figure 1-20 shows the plot of the specific weight of drilling mud for this example calculation. The drilling mud is incompressible and, therefore, the specific weight is 75 lb/ft3 (or 10 lb/gal) at any position in the circulation system. There is some slight expansion of the drilling mud due to the increase in temperature as the drilling mud flows to the bottom of the well. This effect is quite small and is neglected in these engineering calculations.Figure 1-21 shows the plot of the specific weight of the compressed air in this example. The compressed air is injected into the top of the drill string at a specific weight of 1.3 b/ft3 (at a pressure of 260 psia and temperature of 60F). As the air flows down the drill string the pressure remains approximately the same. At the bottom of the drill string the specific weight is 1.2 lb/ft3 (at a pressure of 270 psia and a temperature of 160F). The compressed air exits the drill bit orifices into the bottom of the annulus (bottom of the well) with a specific weight of 1.1 lb/ft3 (at a pressure of 260 psia and a temperature of 160F).第一章：引言此书来源于工程实践，适用于工程师，地球科学家，以及现代旋转钻探的工程技术人员。书中联系天然气钻井技术说明工程计算技术。由于此书涉及多种专业和许多潜在应用，所以作者尽可能地减少使用场方程。为使此书通俗易懂，书中尽量使用简单的术语。书中的大部分，方程都可以用任何一套一致的单位给出。虽然计算例子使用英制，但是读者可以很容易的转换成国际单位制。空气和天然气钻探技术是利用压缩空气或其他气体作为循环回转钻进液，使钻头钻入井底，将岩屑携带到表面。压缩空气或其他气体（如氮气或天然气）能利用自身或淡水，地下水，油等压缩流体注入井底。有三个不同的业务应用这一技术：空气或天然气钻井作业（只用压缩空气或其他气体作为循环液），曝气钻井作业（用压缩空气或其他压缩气体混合做压缩流体），稳定泡沫钻井作业（用压缩空气或其他气体的压缩形成联系的泡沫液循环）。1.1回转钻进回转钻进是在地壳岩层钻深孔的方法。这是一种新的钻探方法，是法国工程师Rudolf Leschot于1863年首次发明的。该方法最初利用淡水循环液做水井钻机。今天这个方法是唯一凿岩钻深孔技术（大于3000英尺）。虽然我们不知道空压机最初何时用于钻探水井，但是空气压缩机是在1920年用于钻探石油天然气井的。管道煤气天然气井在1935年利用反循环技术在德州钻凿。今天回转钻进用来钻各种钻孔。多数需钻进岩层的水井和环境监测井都是利用旋转钻进。在矿业中，回转钻进用来钻先导孔以引导大型骨干钻孔。回转钻进技术用来钻需要通过河流公路及其他自然和人为阻力的水，油，气及其他流体管道。最近，回转钻进钻井正用于光纤通信线路障碍等诸多领域，如工业用地和濒临物种等。回转钻进最尖端的应用是钻深孔钻井用来回收象原油，天然气，地热和水蒸气等资源。流体资源回收井需钻探到规定深度3000尺，高达二万英尺。回转钻进应用机器广泛。鉴于上述，旋转钻探可用来钻探火成岩，变质岩，沉积岩。然而，为回收原油和天然气的深钻钻孔几乎完全在沉积岩中进行。回收热能和水蒸汽的钻孔完全在上述三种岩石类型中进行。旋转钻探方法需要使用破碎或切割岩石的钻头。图11是一个典型磨齿三牙轮钻头。这种钻头采用了更多的行动推进钻头来破碎岩石（更多细节见第三章）。这种钻头主要用于沉积岩的钻进。为了提高钻头在岩石中的钻进速度，要求钻头要有一定的轴向力（将钻头压入岩石表面），扭矩（轮流各点来克服岩石阻力），和能够将影响钻头性能的岩屑带走的冲洗液（见图12）。旋转钻探适用于各种钻机，可以是小型“单一”钻机，或较大的“倍增器”和“三重”钻机。今天大部分陆地旋转钻机采用移动折叠形式。单一钻机有一个接头钻杆垂直桅杆空间。图13给出了一个典型的单一石油钻机。这中小型钻机具有很高的机动性，主要用来钻浅水井（小于3000尺深度），环境监测井，某些采矿井和一些岩土钻孔。小钻井通常都是自推进，图13这种自推进钻井是E公司推出的节能明星产品。这些典型钻机使用一个钻杆一个钻颈圈。单身钻机装有星载空压机或星载泥浆泵。这些钻机能容纳两个子系统。这些钻机在甲板上有一个专用的动力源，或者有一个可以利用卡车发动机做为原动机的启动系统（当卡车静止时）。这些小型钻机通过钻链或电缆驱动下拉系统或液压下来系统提供给钻头轴向力。下拉系统将钻机的一部分重量传递给钻机的顶部直置钻头。钻的头部的扭矩和旋转由可以上下拉动的液压传动系统提供（类似于电力系统用与大型旋转钻机）。许多这些小型单身钻机能够钻与桅杆成45度和90度之间的井。这些钻机的原动机通常是菜油机。图14显示了一个典型的双重钻机。这种钻机也可以自行移动或拖动。图1-5是一个双重自行式钻机的示意。图1-4中的拖车钻机是乔治E公司的产品。这种双钻机能钻进大约一万尺深度，通常用于石油和天然气钻井作业，地热钻井作业，深部开采，岩土探矿作业和水井。典型的双重钻机通常采用两个钻颈圈或一个钻杆。这些钻机装有能控制转盘，绞车，泥浆泵的星载原动机，钻头上的轴向力由钻颈圈提供，钻的顶部的旋转和扭矩由转盘提供。双钻机有一个几乎可以折叠起来的撬棍槽或甲板，这就使这些钻机拥有了两钻铤或两钻杆的拉力。这些钻机能使用钻探泥浆（利用星载泥浆泵）或压缩空气或钻探气体（利用外部压缩机）进行钻井作业。这些钻机能达到与桅杆成45度到90度间的钻探能力，这些钻机的原动机通常都是柴油燃料，但是很容易就能改建成丙烷或天然气燃料。三重钻机装有多种配置，几乎所有这些钻机都是按部分组装的，这些钻机上的立塔式结构被称做井架。这种小型三重陆地钻机大约可以钻进20000英尺，使用范围是两个钻环和一个钻杆。大型三重钻机用在海上平台，这些钻机的使用范围是三个钻环和一饿钻杆。图1-5显示了一个典型的自行推进双重钻机。这个钻机装有一个泥浆泵用来钻井泥浆循环。它有一个发动机用来推动钻机在路面上行驶，这样的发动机还可以给没有专用发动机的转盘，绞车，泥浆泵提供能量。象这样的钻机，它的能量转移发动机驱动液压泵将能量转移给液压马达，在传递给转盘，绞车和泥浆泵。桅杆上的钻槽说明了此钻机有一个钻杆两个钻缝。这个钻机利用轮盘提供扭矩给钻的顶部。钻头上的轴向力由钻底部的钻环的重量提供（此钻机没有绳索下拉能力）。这个例子示意性的显示了一个能提供钻井泥浆和循环水做循环液的钻机。钻机甲板前方的小型空压机是钻机的气动控制装置，然而，这台钻机可以很容易的用来空气和天然气钻井作业。这种类型的钻机（已装有泥浆泵）需要一个辅助构件将外部空气压缩进行空气钻井作业。这种空气钻井作业所需要的压缩系统及相关设备都是有专业的生产商提供的。1.2循环系统两种循环技术能用于泥浆钻井系统和空气或天然气钻井系统。这两种循环技术是正向循环和逆向循环。1.2.1正向循环图1-6是一个回转钻探的例子，是装在典型双向钻机上的正向泥浆循环系统。正向循环要求钻探泥浆（或处理过的水）流过淖泵（泥浆泵），穿过桅杆的顶部，穿过回转软管，穿过旋转到达内部，到达钻杆和钻圈的内部，通过钻头（在井的底部）到达钻的外面和钻孔里面的环行空间。钻探泥浆将岩屑带走，经过环形出水面，然后将其带到表面，再用泥浆振动筛将其从泥浆中分离出来；然后泥浆流向泥浆桶（将泥浆吸引到一边再使其流向井中）。双重（三重）钻机上的污水泵一般都采用正向活塞式。单身钻机的泥浆液通常是在地层表面深挖一个坑，然后垫上不透水的塑料衬垫的淡水。重型的软管从泥浆泵的吸力端（见图1-5）延伸到泥坑中。井水在泥坑中被抽出，通过泵，通过管道系统，通过旋转的软管，通过液压传动系统到达钻杆的内部，然后再通过钻头到达井底。钻井水携带岩屑经由钻杆的外部和钻孔内部的环形面到达表面。在表面带着岩屑的钻探泥浆（水）从环形面流向坑里，岩屑沉积在坑底。单一钻机泵通常都采用小型正向

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