自考英语(二)串讲(珍藏版).doc

自考英语串讲（二）(珍藏版)上册Grammar & UsageSubjectVerb Agreement()1.主谓一致的三条原则（1）语法一致，即在语法形式上取得一致。Human beings enjoy learning.Everybodys understanding is incomplete.(2)意义一致，即根据意义来处理一致关系。The people there are fighting for the independence of their country.Ten dollars was a lot of money at that time.（3）就近原则，即谓语动词的单、复数形式取决于最靠近它的词语。There is a pen,two pencils and an eraser in the pencil box.Neither the boy nor his teachers know the answer.2.集体名词作主语时与动词的一致(1)当主语为furniture,equipment,machinery等词时，谓语动词通常用单数。The furniture in that shop is all made in China.Office equipment is very expensive nowadays.(2)集体名词如people,cattle,police,poultry等往往作复数用。Some people drive madly in this country.Many cattle have died because of the flood.(3)family,government,class,committee,audience,team,public等词被视作一个整体时，其后的动词用单数；被视为构成整体的个体时，其后的动词则为复数。His family is a happy one.His family are all interested in stampcollecting3.并列主语与动词的一致（1）当“名词+名词”表示一种事物时，用单数形式。Bacon and eggs is a very popular British breakfast.(2)当主语是由and,both.and连接的并列结构时，如果主语所指的不是一种事物，动词则用复数形式。Jack and Mary are in love with each other.Both Tom and John are absent today.(3)在由or 或 nor 连接的并列结构中，动词单、复数形式一般与or 或 nor 后面的名词或代词保持一致。He or his brothers are to blame for this.Neither she nor you are mistaken.(4)not only.but also 连接的结构作主语时，动词的单、复数形式依据 but also 后的名词或代词。Not only Fred but also his parents love this small pet dog.Not only the boys but also their mother is very ill.SubjectVerb Agreement()4.带确定数量词的名词词组作主语时的主谓一致(1)当主语是表示数目、时间、重量、距离等的复数名词时，如果该名词所表示的数量看作一个整体，其后的动词用单数。Four years is too long for me to wait.Sixty miles is a short run in a car.(2)当主语是表示数目、时间、重量、距离等的复数名词时，如该名词所表示的数量看作单个个体，其后的动词用复数。The past three weeks were the hardest time in his life.Hundreds of buildings were put up in the city last year.(3)当主语为“分数或百分数+of+名词”时，其后的动词形式依照of后名词的单复数形式来定。Thirty percent of the oil in that country is imported.Ten percent of the eggs have gone bad.（4）当主语为sheep,fish,deer,aircraft,means,steelworks等单数与复数同形的词时，动词的形式以名词单、复数意义为准。Three aircraft are reported missing.Ten fish have been caught today.5.all的主谓一致（1）代词all表示可数的人或物时，其后的动词用复数形式。All were hungry and desperate(渴望)for food.All who have seen the film love it.(2)代词all表示不可数的名词时，其后的动词用单数。All is going well.(一切顺利。)All is quiet in the middle of the night.(3)形容词all+可数名词时，其后的动词用复数形式。All roads lead to Rome.(条条道路通罗马。)All things are difficult when we begin to do them.(4)形容词all+不可数名词时，其后的动词用单数形式。All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.Not all food is good to eat.6.带none的词组作主语时，其后面的动词单数或复数形式都可用。None of you have / has had my experience.None of the hotels are / is ready for guests yet.NounPronoun AgreementNounPossessive Case Agreement7.名词与代词和名词所有格的一致一般来说，代词和名词所有格对名词的指代在数的形式上是一致的。The two sisters have their own different toys.The men are discussing their opinions at the meeting.当名词为audience,class,committee,enemy,family,faculty,gang,government,jury,media,public,staff,team等既可视为整体名词又可视为个体名词的集体名词时，则要根据它们在句中的意思来确定代词和所有格的形式。The public demanded that the government account for its new economic policy.The government had discussed this problem for a long time but they had shown no sign of agreement.8.不定代词的一致问题one,everyone,everybody,no one,nobody,anyone,anybody,someone,somebody等作主语时，在正式的文体中其相应的代词一般用him,所有格用his，也有人用him or her和his or her，但是这种用法显得累赘。Everybody must finish his homework by tomorrow.Nobody in that position will give his opinion right away.注意：one作主语时，其相应的代词也可以是one，所有格可以是ones。One has to be careful about what one says before children.在非正式文体中，也可根据意义，用复数代词。而且，由于him和his有语言性别歧视之嫌，虽然谓语动词仍用单数形式，现在人们普遍用复数代词。No one has handed in their paper yet.Everyone has given their opinion on the issue.但everything,anything,something,nothing作主语时，其相应的代词要用单数形式。Something has gone wrong,hasnt it?Tag Questions9.附加疑问句的构成由两部分构成：陈述句+附加成分。附加成分也由两部分构成：助动词或be的一种形式+人称代词（应与陈述句的主语相应）附加疑问句主要用于口语，表示期望对方的同意或对所陈述之事的首肯。附加疑问句有下列几种形式：（1）肯定陈述句+否定附加成分（附加成分除极为正式场合或老式英语中都要用缩略形式）You sure get to see things differently,dont you?Youve heard the news,havent you?(2)否定的陈述句+肯定附加成分Peter doesnt smoke,does he?The party wont start until seven,will it?10.附加疑问句的几点特殊用法（1）凡是带有no,none,no one,nobody,nothing,hardly,seldom,rarely,never,barely,few,little,neither等否定词的陈述句，都应看作否定陈述句，后面接肯定附加成分。She seldom leaves the room in winter,does she?People rarely go that far to that small village,do they?(2)当陈述句的主语everybody,everyone,someone,somebody,anyone,nobody,no one,neither,none时，附加成分中的代词一般用they。Everyone at the party had a good time,didnt they?Neither of them said a word,did they?(3)陈述部分是there引导的存在句时，附加成分由助动词或be的一种形式+there构成。There is something wrong with the child,isnt there?There is nobody in the room,is there?(4)陈述部分是肯定的Im.结构时，附加成分为arent I。Im the doctor ,arent I?Im late,arent I?(在老式或极为正式的英语中用：I am late,am I not?)(5)陈述部分是一个带有that从句作宾语的主从结构时，附加成分应与主句的主语和谓语动词保持对应关系。You think(that) I did it,dont you?He didnt say Mary would come,did he?注意：当陈述部分的主句是I think,I suppose,I believe等时，附加成分往往与that从句中的主语和谓语动词保持对应关系，但要注意I dont think等结构对从句的否定用法。I suppose you are here to study,arent you?I dont think he came here just to say goodbye,did he?I believe you are in urgent need of help,arent you?如果想核实对方的看法是否与你一致，附加部分则与主句相应。I think hes the best person for the job,dont you?(6)在祈使句后加一个附加疑问成分可缓和语气，附加成分一般用will you和would you，但也可用wont you或cant you。Open the window,would you?Give me a hand,wont you?(7)Lets 型祈使句中附加成分用shall we。Lets go for a walk,shall we?Lets get down to work,shall we?（8）陈述部分带有used to时，附加成分用did形式，偶尔用used to形式。He used to smoke fifty cigarettes a day ,didnt he?有的语法书将used not缩略式定为usednt to，这是老式的用法，现在很少有人使用。11.附加疑问句的回答要针对所陈述的内容，不受附加疑问成分的制约。You didnt go there alone,did you?No,I didnt.You love coffee,dont you?Yes,I do.Types of Sentence:the Imperative12.祈使句的作用（1）表示命令和指示Dont make any noise.Let the boy say what he wants.(2)表示建议、劝告或警告Dont be upset.Write to me if you need further information.(3)请求和呼吁Come quickly.Help!Do help me,please.(4)邀请Drop in whenever you have time.Come in and have a cup of tea.(5)解释Take Class 5 for example.Look at the situation in the Middle East for example.13.祈使句的基本形式祈使句的第二人称主语you通常省略，以动词原形开头，句尾用句号或感叹号。Sit down.Take your share of the water!祈使句的否定形式是在动词前加dont,但在正式文体中则用do not。Do not litter in the park!Do not feed the animals!也可在动词前加never。Never forget the past.Never put off until tomorrow what you can do today.(谚语)14.祈使句的委婉形式（1）在句首或句尾加please。Pass me the salt,please.Please dont forget to come here at eight tomorrow.(2)用附加疑问成分will you? / wont you? / would you?等。Come and have dinner with us,would you?Dont come late again,will you?15.祈使句的强调形式（1）在动词前可加上助动词do。Do come in and have a cup of coffee.Do tell me whats bothering you.(2)祈使句表示命令、建议或警告时，动词前加“you”。You shut up.(不客气的说法)You go first.16.祈使句的第三人称形式祈使句的句首或句尾也可加人名和第三人称代词如everyone，everybody,nobody,anybody等，但它们不是句子的主语，只是称呼，用以唤起注意，不影响动词的形式。Tom move the table there,and John take the rubbish out.Passengers for Flight 104 please wait at Gate Four.17.Lets型祈使句如果祈使的对象包括说话者本人，就用Lets 型祈使句：Lets have a meeting this evening.Lets go in and have a look.Lets 型祈使句的否定式为Lets not.和Dont lets.:Dont lets argue any more.Lets not argue any more.注意let me do sth.表示“提出做某事”。Let me carry your suitcase.在极为正式的文体中，let表示愿望。Let justice and peace live!Let all good people be happy!18.祈使句的被动结构祈使句的被动结构多用于否定式。Dont be frightened by what he says.Dont be surprised at what you are going to see.Rhetorical Questions & Ellipsis19.修辞性疑问句是用疑问句的形式表达说话人态度、感情而无需回答的疑问句。（1）形式一般疑问句的肯定形式（起否定陈述句的作用）Do you think you have the right to talk to me like that?（你觉得你有权利跟我这样说话？意思是你无权这么做。）Is that the reason for going there alone?(这就是你单独去那儿的理由吗？意思是这不能成为理由。)一般疑问句的否定形式（起肯定陈述句的作用）Dont you want to know what it is?(难道你就不想知道这是什么东西吗？意思是你肯定想知道。)Havent you had enough of her complaints?(你还没受够她的抱怨吗？意思是你已经受够了。)特殊疑问句的肯定形式（相当于否定的陈述句）Now that youve got a wellpaid job,what else do you want?(你还要什么？意思是你不应该再要求别的什么了。)What difference does it make?(那有什么区别？意思是没有区别。)特殊疑问句的否定形式（相当于肯定的陈述句）Who doesnt know?(谁不知道？意思是谁都知道了。)Why dont you quit? You cant hold out!(你为什么不罢手？你不可能坚持到底的！)（2）用法表示惊讶、感叹Dont you love your own parents?(你难道不爱自己的父母吗？)Isnt that a lovely park?(那公园真美！)表示愤怒How dare you speak to me like that?(你居然跟我这样说话，太不像话了！)Why dont you shut up?(你给我闭嘴！)表示建议或委婉的批评、责备Why dont we have lunch in an eating place around here?Cant you come a bit early next time?表示邀请Wont you sit down and have a cup of tea?Why dont you come in and have a look?用修辞性疑问句表达以上态度和感情时语气比一般陈述句要强烈。20.句子结构的省略英语句子的某些成分在一定的情况下可以省略，如祈使句省略主语，比较从句省略谓语、宾语等。这里着重归纳并列句和复合句中的省略。（1）并列句中的省略一般说来，第二个并列从句中与第一个并列从句相同的成分通常都可省略。My sister likes music and I(like)painting.(省略谓语)People there will go sailing in summer and (they will go) skiing in winter.(省略主语、谓语)He won an Oscar Award(奥斯卡奖)in 1976 and his wife (won an Oscar Award) in 1977.(省略谓语、宾语)（2）复合句中的省略省略如果出现在主句，则多出现在句首。(It is) No wonder she speaks such good Chinese.(Youd) Better stay where you are.(Its a ) Pity I cant go with you.复合句中的省略多出现在状语从句中。Im happy as long as you are(happy).Youll have to wash the dishes today because I wont (wash the dishes).If (it is) necessary,I can explain this to him.(3)复合句中若有两个以上的宾语从句，则从第二个宾语从句开始that不能省略。He told me (that) he enjoyed the concert very much and that he would like to meet the conductor.Everybody can see (that) this is an important issue and that they cannot afford to overlook it.(4)缩略状语从句如果主句和从句的主语一致，状语从句可以省略主语以及谓语的一部分。When I finished,he waited as if (he was/were) expecting more.While (he was) recovering from his operation,David renewed an old interest in stockcar racing.When (they are) ripe, the tomatoes taste delicious.Object Complement21.名词、形容词、介词词组作宾语补足语The class elected him monitor.(名词)I found the film very interesting.(形容词)Id like to find everything in its proper place when I come back.(介词词组)22.动词不定式、分词作宾语补足语What did you tell her to do?(不定式)Im sorry to have kept you waiting.(现在分词)23.as+名词/形容词/分词作宾语补足语He seemed to regard it as his own achievement.(名词)Her teacher spoke of her as gentle,kind and hardworking.(形容词)You mustnt think of me as being rude to you.(分词词组)The PredictiveThe Subject Complement24.表语置于系动词后，构成主语+系（动词）+表语结构（1）名词词组、形容词词组和介词词组作表语She is a very responsible teacher.(名词词组)It was indeed a terrible thing to happen.(形容词词组)Your room is on the third floor,Sir.(介词词组)（2）不定式结构作表语The question is where to get the money and how to organize the work.An artists business is to show the world as he sees it,not to make it better.注意be + to do 不一定都是系表结构，这一结构常常用来表示命令或安排。You are to wear uniforms at work.（命令）The plane is to take off at 830 p.m.(安排)（3）动名词和分词词组作表语His favourite sport is playing football.(动名词词组)The door remained locked for a whole day.(名词)注意：过去分词作表语时，起形容词作用，没有被动的意思。He was too excited to be able to take part in the contest.(4)代词作表语This room is yours;the next one is mine.Dont worry.Its nothing serious.(5)名词从句作表语Their idea is that we should build another school in this district.The fact is that I cant do much about this.25.主语补足语是在句中补充说明主语状况的成分在主语+谓语+主补结构中谓语表示主语的行为，主补表示主语的状况。（1）谓语为不及物动词die,return和be born后面可跟形容词或名词作补语。He died young.(形容词)He died a hero.(名词)一般不及物动词后只能跟形容词或过去分词作主语补足语。The students walked home pround and satisfied.(2)谓语为及物动词时可由形容词或过去分词作主语补足语。He gazed at her speechless.She stared at the box wideeyed.(3)带有宾语补足语的句子变成被动语态时，宾语补足语则变成了主语补足语。The door was kicked open.(形容词)Xiao Wang was elected President of the Students Association.(名词)The patient was told not to take too much salt.(不定式词组)The tap was left running all night.(分词词组)Adjectives()26.形容词用来说明人、物、事等的性质、特点、类别I opened the two bags with my personal belongings.(类别)A great army it was, and a great story for me.(特点)The sherry was a little too dry.(性质)27.形容词在句子中作定语、表语以及（主语或宾语的）补足语Hughie looked very miserable in those days.(表语)Personally he was a strange,rough fellow,with a freckled face and red,rough beard.(定语)His eyes kept watching me,narrow and dangerous.(主补)28.形容词句型（1）形容词+介词词组Lauras father was very fond of Hughie,but would not hear of an engagement.Humans are capable of great mutual compassion,love,and tenderness.类似的词组还有：afraid of,ashamed of,(un)aware of ,full of,guilty of,innocent of,sure of,tired of,true of等。They were very valuable to me in reporting the armys victories.The little girl felt close to the birds and plants and animals.类似的词组还有：accustomed to,connected to,devoted to,familiar to,related to,similar to,unique to等。常用于形容词之后的介词还有：about,at,for,in,with等。I am often uncertain about whether to give in to many of my childrens requests.Dont get trapped by the first thing you find yourself good at.(2)形容词+不定式名词或代词作主语Many parents are unable to stand up to their childrens unreasonable demands.You are bound to vacillate at times.以上这类形容词几乎总是与不定式连用。还有一些表示人的情绪或愿望的形容词既可与不定式连用也可与介词词组或名词从句连用。The boy is afraid to go out after dark.Im glad to see you in my country.Hes ashamed to tell you what really happened.Im sorry to break the news to you.另有一类形容词与含有被动意思的不定式连用，说明主语的情况。The material is easy to wash.He is difficult to get along with.形容词前可加too,后可加enough。Youre too pretty to be so heavy.He thinks he is old enough to manage his own affairs.不定式作主语的两种形式（a）It is + adj.(+ for sb. / sth.)+ to do sth.常用于此句型的形容词有：common,dangerous,difficult,easy,important,(un)necessary,(im)possible等。(b)It is + adj. + of sb. to do sth.常用于此句型的形容词有：brave,careless,clever,generous,good,kind,mean,stupid,wise等。Was it possible for the writer to get his diaries out of Berlin safely?It is difficult for media celebrities to pass through a crowd without being recognized.形容词 + 名词从句许多形容词可用于此句型，如afraid,angry,anxious,aware,certain,confident,glad,happy,pleased,proud,sad,sorry,sure,surprised,unaware等。He felt terribly sorry that he had given the millionaire a pound.He was afraid that the millionaire would think him foolish.名词从句也可作主语。It is too bad that you missed your flight.It seems possible that peace will be restored in that country by the end of the year.Preposition+Which/Who+Relative ClausesSplit Relative and Appositive Clauses29.定语从句中的介词+关系代词结构英语正式的文体，尤其是法律和科技文献中，定语从句中的关系代词（主要是which）前往往加介词，介词的选择有时取决于从句中的动词结构，有时又取决于主句中关系词前面的名词结构。因此介词的选择既要注意其后的也要注意其前的搭配关系。Physics,about which I know nothing,doesnt seem so dull a subject.(定语从句可以转换成I know nothing about physics,可以看出 about 与 know 有关。)This depends on the purpose for which the examination is given.(定语从句可以转换成the examination is given for . purpose，介词for与purpose有关。)注意：在语义上相当于一个简单动词的短语动词中的介词不能前置，只能用在动词后。This is a phase of history which it is sad to look back on.The baby whom she is taking care of is very lovely indeed.口语中要避免这种结构，关系代词which往往省略。Theres a limit (which) nobody should go beyond.Thats something (which) they can never put up with.30.分隔型定语从句一般情况下，定语从句紧跟在它所修饰的名词或代词之后，但有时由于修辞和语法的需要，定语从句与它所修饰的先行词分开，这就是分隔型定语从句。它有以下几种情况。（1）先行词+介词短语+定语从句He is the only friend of mine who is not interested in music.That was the most important day in my life that I can remember.(2)先行词+主动态动词+定语从句He laughs best who laughs last.(谁笑到最后谁笑得最好。)The day will come when you will be proud of me.（3）先行词+分词短语+定语从句There is someone waiting for you outside who says he must see you personally.There are few places left on earth where man hasnt put his foot.(4)先行词+定语从句He is one of those people I know who do not care about money at all.That is the only film Ive ever seen which uses that technique.31.分隔型同位语从句和定语从句一样，同位语从句一般紧接与之对应的名词，但有时也可分开。The suggestion was made that they should be packed off at once in a special train.Within a week or two he received a letter from the university that he had been accepted.Both,Either,Neither32.both表示一个和另一个两者都，用复数动词。Both sides of the street are decorated with colourful lights.She has two brothers,Both work in the city.both.and 连接同类的语法结构（名词、动词、形容词、介词短语等），表示强调。He has both the knowledge and capability to do this job.Both she and her husband were very pleased with the girl.33.either(1)表示两者中的任何一个，用单数动词。You may take either of the roads to get there.He could write with either hand.(2)表示两边。You can see a lot of trees on either side of the street.Many conversations are a kind of competition that rarely leads to discovery on either side.(3)作副词，表示也，用于否定句。A little bit of exercise wont do you any harm,either.He didnt go to the meeting and she didnt turn up,either.(4)和or连用，连接相同的语法结构，表示或是或是，不是就是，既又，既不又不，它所带的动词在数上与or后面的名词或代词保持一致。Either you or Dick is responsible for it.Either he or his brothers have to clean the room.34.neither(1)作代词，表示两者都不，后面的动词多用单数形式。Neither of the books is of any help to me.If you run after two hares,youll catch neither.(2)作副词，表示也不。用于句首，句子的主语与谓语必须倒装。I have never been here before.Neither have I.He cannot speak English,and neither can he read it.(3)与nor连用，连接相同的语法结构，表示既不也不。它所带的动词在数上与nor后面的名词或代词保持一致。Neither his friends nor he knows anything about it.Im afraid I have neither the time nor the money to help you.Negation35.否定词英语中的否定结构多以否定词来表示，常用的否定词有：not,no,never,none,nothing,nobody,nowhere,neither,nor,还有表示近似否定的hardly,seldom,scarcely,barely,rarely,little,few等。No one has any doubt about his ability.None of the candidates has arrived yet.I shall never forget your kindness.I seldom get any sleep after the baby wakes up.He has hardly spoken to anyone who disagrees with him on this point.Mr. Smith had barely started speaking when he was interrupted.注意：否定词若放在句首时，句子的主谓要倒装。Not for one moment did he stop working.Little do I know about the city.但否定的名词词组作主语并放在句首时，不能倒装。Not all of the passengers escaped unhurt.Not a