大二上语法知识整理.docx

Mood of the VerbWhat is mood?Mood as a semantic categoryIn EnglishIn ChineseMood as a grammatical category of the verb? In English【Views on mood as a grammatical category】 The traditional view: three moods: the indicative the imperative the subjunctive The subjunctive has seven forms: were, had been, be, should be, would be, should have been, would have been The contemporary views (1) The moderate view: three moods: the indicative the imperative the subjunctive But: The subjunctive has only two forms: were, be (remnants of Old English)(2) The radical view: There is no mood at all as a grammatical category of the verb in English. The past tense in unreal conditionals is the hypothetical use of the past tense. were used to be the regular past tense form of “be”. be is the present tense form of the second person.【Meanings and uses of the be-subjunctive】1. The be-subjunctive expresses indirect imperatives (indirect command / decision /suggestion) in the that-clauses after words denoting command, decision, suggestion, importance, necessity, etc. (including verbs, nouns and adjectives).例句：He ordered that she come back without delay.The board has given instructions that the agent fly to Boston.It is essential that all the facts be examined first.Compare the following:a. He ordered that she should come back without delay. b. He ordered her to come back without delay. a. The board has given instructions that the agent should fly to Boston. b. The board has given instructions for the agent to fly to Boston.a. It is essential that all the facts should be examined first. b. It is essential for all the facts to be examined first.Compare the following: Her red face suggests that she is angry.He insisted that she was wrong.It is odd that he has failed/should have failed again. 2. The be-subjunctive expresses hypothetical imperatives (hypothetical condition/concession) in adverbial clauses introduced by if, though, whether, whatever, lest, so long as, etc. This use of the be-subjunctive is limited to formal style. In informal style the indicative mood or “should/may + infinitive” is used instead. a. If the rumor be true, everything is possible. b. If the rumor is true, everything is possible.a. Whatever be his defense, we cannot tolerate his disloyalty. b. Whatever his defense may be, we cannot tolerate his disloyalty.a. He hid himself in the bush lest he be seen. b. He hid himself in the bush lest he should be seen. 3. The be-subjunctive expresses imperative wishes, prayers, curses, etc. in some formulaic expressions.Long live the Peoples Republic of China!Far be it from me to spoil the fun.Home is home, be it ever so homely.Be he friend or enemy, the law regards him as criminal.He will remain here if need be.【Meanings and uses of the were-subjunctive】 1. The were-subjunctive expresses hypothetical condition, concession and manner in adverbial clauses introduced by if, if only, as if, as though, etc. 2. The were-subjunctive expresses hypotheses in nominal clauses after verbs like wish, would rather, suppose, imagine, etc. Were is replaced by was after the third person singular except in some formulaic expressions in formal style.Were I to do it, I should try a different way.If I were you, I would be very happy.He is, as it were, a walking dictionary.He is my best friend, my second self, as it were. Were is replaced by the indicative in clauses after as if, as though, suppose, imagine for the sake of expressing different meanings. He looks as if he were/is sick. She talks as though she were/is an expert. In the clauses after It is (high) time (that) and I would rather (that), was is to be used EIts time he was here.Id rather that he was far away from me.Voice of the VerbDefinitionsVoice is a form of the verb which indicates the semantic relationship between the subject and the predicate. Voice is a grammatical category of the English verb, which mirrors the language users perspective on an eve【Forms of the Voices 】1. The active: 2.The passive: (unmarked) (marked) study be studied be studying be being studied have studied have been studied have been studying have been being studied1. In terms of semantics The active voice indicates the agent-action relationship between the subject and the predicate, or the active subject-predicate relationship for short, while the passive voice indicates the patient-action relationship between the subject and the predicate, or the passive subject-predicate relationship for short. 想 XZ 【Meanings of the Voices】1. In terms of semantics The active voice indicates the agent-action relationship between the subject and the predicate, or the active subject-predicate relationship for short, while the passive voice indicates the patient-action relationship between the subject and the predicate, or the passive subject-predicate relationship for short.2. In terms of cognitionThe prototypical active voice construes the whole process of an event from the perspective of the agent. The passive voice construes the whole process of an event from the perspective of the patient. 【Uses of the voices】 (1) a semantic approach The active voice is used when the subject is the agent and the passive is used when the subject is the patient. Compare: The rain destroyed the flowers. The flowers were destroyed by the rain.(2) a cognitive approach Perspective Subject Voice agent active patient passive (prominence of participants in the event) Conventional prominence(Prominence in conventional context)Agent being more prominent than patient Unconventional prominence(Prominence in unconventional context)Patient being more prominent than agent (3) a pragmatic approach Context Topic Subject Voice participant purpose background knowledge common interest given information Explain the following: It rained heavily last night. The rain destroyed the flowers in the garden. A: The flowers are all gone. What has happened to them? B: They were destroyed by the rain last night. The professor walked onto the platform and was warmly applauded by the audience. A: Who wrote The True Story of Ah Q? B: It was written by Lu Xun. The passive is not possible: 1. when the verb is intransitive: Since then, great changes have taken place in the country. The goods changed hands very easily. They looked into the hole but found nothing. They arrived at their destination in time.Compare:The problem has been looked into but so far no conclusion has been arrived at.2. when the verb denotes a state of relation:The dress fits her very well.The room can hold 100 people.He has a lot of English books.Compare:The laboratory is fitted with the latest equipment. The meeting is to be held in the auditorium.The book can be had at any bookstore in town.3. when the verb takes a cognate object:She dreamed an awful dream.Liu Hunan lived a great life and died a glorious death.He looked (a look of) daggers at me.He nodded (a nod of) his approval.They waved (a wave of) / kissed (a kiss of) good-bye.4. when the verb takes the indefinite it orthe formal it as its object:If we miss the last bus, well have to foot it home.Legend has it that this is where the Foolish Old Man removed the mountain.I put it to you that he is still a child under ten.5. when the verb takes a reflexive or reciprocal pronoun as its object: He looked at himself in the mirror. They looked after each other when they were at college. The passive is preferred: 1. when the agent is unknown/indefinite:It is said/believed/thought that The compass was invented in China. 2. when the agent is known to all:The children are taken good care of in the school.The thief was caught on the spot.Red Flag cars are made in China. 3. when the speaker does not want to mention the agent:About this matter, much has been said but little has been done.It is generally considered improper to spend so much time on such things.The passive is different from the active: 1. in informational structure They have so far built only one house, not two. The house was built by the owner himself, not by anybody else. 2. in modality orientationHe can lift the box easily. The box can be lifted by the boy easily.John is willing to teach Mary. Mary is willing to be taught by John.The boy dare not do the job. ?The job dare not be done by the boy.Different verb forms expresses different meanings. The floor cleans well. The floor is cleaned well.The floor has been cleaned well.The floor can be cleaned well easily.Tense of the VerbI. Time and tenseTime: a universal concept which involves such terms as present, past and futureTense: a grammatical category of the verb which exists in some languages and which does not necessarily correspond with the timeII. Tenses and their forms four tenses: the present tense, the past tense, the future tense, the past future tense three tenses: the present tense, the past tense, the future tense two tenses: the present tense, the past tense Future and means of expressing future Future: a time in prediction, a time that has not been experienced Future actions: actions predicted, planned or arranged at present Means of expressing (present) future: present-tense verb forms Means of expressing past future: past-tense verb formsIII. Meaning of tenseThe traditional definition:A grammatical category of the verb which expresses the time of the action denoted by the verb.A new definition: A form of the verb which indicatesthe time relationship between the action state and its reference time.Action state:state in which the action exists They are fighting a war against terrorism. He has published two articles so far this year. Thomas knew three languages when he was young. How I wish I knew three languages! Reference time: time which has a referential relationship with the action state Unmarked reference time(I now say) He speaks with an accent.(I now remember) He spoke with an accent.(I now write) Im so glad to receive your letter Marked reference time I think/have an idea it is going to rain.He argued that he needed a larger office.When she arrives, she will tell us what she wants.I learned that she said she was told her parents had been away from home ever since she was born.If she rings, Ill tell her that Ill be very well prepared to face any danger that is to occur on the road ahead. Time relationships Prioritya. ( ) Shakespeare was born in 1564. b. She told us that Shakespeare was born/had been born in 1564. c. When you get there, phone to let us know you arrived safely. Simultaneitya. ( ) He is taking a shower now.b. She told us that he was taking a shower then.c. When you get there, phone to let us know what the weather is like There. Posterioritya. ( ) They will cooperate with us.b. She told us that they would cooperate with us.c. When you get there, phone to let us know what you are going to do the next day.IV. Meaning and uses of the past tense 1. meaning of the past tense a time relationship of distance2. uses of the past tense (1) to express distance in time ( ) New China was founded in 1949. She told us that New China was founded/had been founded in 1949. If we succeed, generations to come will say of us now living that we mastered our moment, that we helped make the world safe for mankind. (2) to express distance in reality a. I wish I had attended the conference. b. Id rather you lived next door to me. c. ( ) If only I could go with you! a. He ran home in a hurry as though he had seen a ghost. b. It is high time we left here. c. ( ) If they came tomorrow, I would meet them at the airport. (3) to express distance in psychologya. I wondered if you could do me a favour.b. I was hoping you would do that for me.c. Would you pass me the salt?d. Care killed the cat.V. Meaning and uses of the present tense1. meaning of the present tense a time relationship of connection2. uses of the present tense (1) to express connection in timea. He says he has worked / has been working here for ten years.b. When you finish the work, youll find youve done something worth doing.a. ( ) Now Napier passes the ball to Attwater, who heads it straight into the goal.b. We wont know what we need for our life there until we get there.a. ( ) They are playing against Class B next week.b. The generations to come will say they will certainly do better than their forefathers. (2) to express connection in psychologyWhen Tom is standing up on the coach looking back at his father, the horses suddenly break into a gallop.b. Clinton Cuts Gulf Forces in Half As Showdown With Iraq Recedes.c. The ten oclock news says its going to be cold.d. You dont believe it? Im telling the truth.Tense of the VerbI. Time and tenseTime: a universal concept which involves such terms as present, past and futureTense: a grammatical category of the verb which exists in some languages and which does not necessarily correspond with the timeII. Tenses and their forms four tenses: the present tense, the past tense, the future tense, the past future tense three tenses: the present tense, the past tense, the future tense two tenses: the present tense, the past tense Future and means of expressing future Future: a time in prediction, a time that has not been experienced Future actions: actions predicted, planned or arranged at present Means of expressing (present) future: present-tense verb forms Means of expressing past future: past-tense verb formsIII. Meaning of tenseThe traditional definition:A grammatical category of the verb which expresses the time of the action denoted by the verb.A new definition: A form of the verb which indicatesthe time relationship between the action state and its reference time.Action state:state in which the action exists They are fighting a war against terrorism. He has published two articles so far this year. Thomas knew three languages when he was young. How I wish I knew three languages! Reference time: time which has a referential relationship with the action state Unmarked reference time(I now say) He speaks with an accent.(I now remember) He spoke with an accent.(I now write) Im so glad to receive your letterMarked reference time I think/have an idea it is going to rain.He argued that he needed a larger office.When she arrives, she will tell us what she wants.I learned that she said she was told her parents had been away from home ever since she was born.If she rings, Ill tell her that Ill be very well prepared to face any danger that is to occur on the road ahead. Time relationships Prioritya. ( ) Shakespeare was born in 1564. b. She told us that Shakespeare was born/had been born in 1564. c. When you get there, phone to let us know you arrived safely.Simultaneitya. ( ) He is taking a shower now.b. She told us that he was taking a shower then.c. When you get there, phone to let us know what the weather is like There. Posterioritya. ( ) They will cooperate with us.b. She told us that they would cooperate with us.c. When you get there, phone to let us know what you are going to do the next day.IV. Meaning and uses of the past tense 1. meaning of the past tense a time relationship of distance2. uses of the past tense (1) to express distance in time ( ) New China was founded in 1949. She told us that New China was founded/had been founded in 1949. If we succeed, generations to come will say of us now living that we mastered our moment, that we helped make the world safe for mankind. (2) to express distance in reality a. I wish I had attended the conference. b. Id rather you lived next door to me. c. ( ) If only I could go with you! a. He ran home in a hurry as though he had seen a ghost. b. It is high time we left here. c. ( ) If they came tomorrow, I would meet them at the airport. (3) to express distance in psychologya. I wondered if you could do me a favour.b. I was hoping you would do that for me.c. Would you pass me the salt?d. Care killed the cat.V. Meaning and uses of the present tense1. meaning of the present tense a time relationship of connection2. uses of the present tense (1) to express connection in timea. He says he has worked / has been working here for ten years.b. When you finish the work, youll find youve done something worth doing.a. ( ) Now Napier passes the ball to Attwater, who heads it straig