the second language acqusition第二语言习得复习资料.doc

1.Definition of Second language acquisition: It refers to a systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.Acquisition习得: 无意识地学会Learning学习：通过系统学习语法规律等学会2. Interlanguage 中介语 Selinker (1972) coined the term “interlanguage” to refer to the systematic knowledge of an L2 which is independent of both these learners L1 and the target language. The term has come to be used with different but related meanings: (1) to refer to the series of interlocking systems which characterize acquisition. (2) to refer to the system that is observed at a single stage of development. (“interlanguage”), and (3) to refer to particular L1/L2 combination (for example,L1 French/ L2 English v. L1 Japanese/L2 English). Other terms that refer to the same basic idea are “approximative system” and “transitional competence”. 定义：中介语：中介语理论假设第二语言学习者有一个自行创造的独特的语言系统，介乎学习者的母语和目的语之间，并随学习的进展逐渐向目的语靠拢。因为游离于母语和目的语之间，中介语自然包含许多错误。E.g. I lost my road. I lost my way. 特征：Fossilization（石化现象）:It refers to the phenomenon that incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. 石化现象是中介语的重要特征 E.g. All students are not here.不是所有的学生都在这里 None of the student is here.所有的学生都不在这里FossilizationSelinker (1972) noted that most L2 learners fail to reach target-language competence. That is, they stop learning while their internalized rule system contains rules different from those of target system. This is referred to as “fossilization”. It reflects the operation of various internal processes.1、 Concepts of Second language acquisition: 1 Objectives:1 Competence vs performance2 L1 vs. L2 vs. FL3 Acquisition vs. learning 4 Input vs. output5 Interlanguage 中介语 6 Variability7 Fossilization （石化现象） 8 Language transfer 迁移2. Competence vs. PerformanceChomsky (1957)made his famous distinguish between Competence and PerformanceCompetence: an ideal speakers knowledge of his languages manifested in his ability to use the language.Sound, form, meaning:Performance: the specific utterances, including grammatical mistakes and non-linguistic features such as hesitations, etc. Competence and performance in language learningWhat is acquired or learned of the two? In language learning, what does the distinction tell us? (result, process, evaluation)3. First language vs. Second language vs. F L 1What is First language (L1)? L1, with other names: native language (NL), mother tongue, primary language. First language or second language indicates the order or sequence of language learning. 2. What is second language (L2)? The language one learns after his native language or L1.“Second” can mean any language one learn that is subsequent to his L1. 3.Two senses of L2 A: the language one learns after his native language, one learns the language in the target language (TL) language environment. (narrow sense) Example: A Chinese learns English in US or UK. An American learns Chinese in China. B: Any language that one learns other than his native tongue.( broad sense)Example: We are learning English in China. 4.Foreign Language (FL)The language that one learns other than his first language, but not in the target language environment.1 Learning English not in the English-spoken countries.2 Differences between FL and L2 FL L24.A Comparison between L1 and L2 acquisition Speed Stages Error correction Depth of knowledge Success Level of attainment5. Acquisition vs. Learning 1. What is acquisition? The distinction between acquisition and learning was made by S. Krashen, the famous American applied linguist in his “Monitor Theory”.He defined two types of modes of learning in adult L2 learning. 2.Acquisition: the subconscious learning process in the natural language environment that is not influenced by explicit instruction in a second languages rules and system or about errors.Learning: is a conscious process of language development that is the result of intended and explicit instruction in a second languages roles and system or about errors in a artificial environment such as a formal language classroom.A comparison between Learning and acquisitionAcquisitionLearningImplicit,subconsciousExplicit,consciousInformalsituationsFormalsituationsUsesgrammatical“feel”UsesgrammaticalrulesDependsonattitudeDependsonaptitudeStableorderofacquisitionSimpletocomplexorderoflearning6. Input and Output1 What is input and output?Generally, input refers to the channels (process) that learners acquire information of language in learning or acquisition: listening and reading;Output refers to the channels and process results) that learners produce language, including speaking and writing.2 Kinds of Input Authentic input: Native speaker input, no modification Modified input Native speaker input, no modification Interlanguage input Teacher talk, peers talk3 Linguistic adjustments to Non-Native Speakers (NNS) “foreigner talk” ( Ferguson, 1975) well-formed but modified. Feature * slower, more careful pronunciation, stress on key words （VOA special English） * shorter grammar structures* grammatical relations made explicit* less syntactic or propositional complexity* restricted vocabulary size* fewer pro forms4 Comprehensible inputStephen Krashen (1981) held that learners acquire an L2 by hearing and understanding messages that are slightly above their current language L2 level. This type of input is called comprehensible input (namely, “i+1”)Essentially, comprehensible input is that bit of language that is heard/read and that is slightly ahead of a learners current state of grammatical knowledge.Language containing structures a learner already knows essentially serves no purpose in acquisition. Similarly, language containing structures ahead of a learners current knowledge is not useful. A learner does not have the ability to “do” anything with those structures. Krashen defined a learners current state of knowledge as i and the next stage as i + 1. Thus the input a learner is exposed to must be at the i + 1 level in order for it to be of use in terms of acquisition. “We move from i, our current level to i + 1, the next level along the natural order, by understanding input containing i + 1” (1985, p. 2).The teachers main role, then, is to ensure that students receive comprehensible input.5 Comprehensible output Many researchers believe that Input alone is not sufficient for acquisition, because when one hears language one can often interpret the meaning without the use of syntax.Input -output (what is in between?)Intake is very necessary for Second language learners also need comprehensible output: chances to practice their language. This practice is called comprehensible output.Cooperative learning is one effective way to do so. Comprehensible output refers to the need for a learner to be “pushed toward the delivery of a message that is not only conveyed, but that is conveyed precisely, coherently, and appropriately” (Swain, 1985, p. 249).Output, thus, would seem to have a potentially significant role in the development of syntax and morphology” (Swain, 1995, p. 128). 可理解输入的三个功能：注意/触发功能(noticing)。忽视问题、识别问题并对相关输入予以注意、注意特定的输入加工，寻找解决办法假设验证功能(hypothesis-testing)。L2学习是一个不断对目标做出假设并不断验证的过程。元语言功能(metalanguage)。琢磨、分析语言所得出的关于语言的形式、结构和其它方面的知识教元语言。当学习者反思其目标语用法时，输出就起元语言的功能。7. Interlanguage (IL) Definition: inter+languageLarry Selinker (1972) coined the term interlanguage is an emerging linguistics system that has been developed by a learner of a second language who has not become fully proficient yet, but is only approximating the target language.An IL is idiosyncraticaly based on the learners experiences with the second language.The term interlanguage was first used by Selinker (1972). Various terms have been used for the same thing: Nemser (1971): approximative systemsCorder (1971): idiosyncratic dialects, transitional competence. 8.Transfer1 Definition: Transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired (Odlin 1989:27) “一个人关于一种语言的知识对他另一种语言的知识或使用产生的影响” The influence of a persons knowledge of one language on that persons knowledge or use of another language. (Jarvis & Pavlenko，2008：1） 。 语言迁移还可以指L2向L1的迁移（反向迁移），也称语言磨蚀（attrition）。2. Classification: Transfer can be positive and negative，originate from L1 or L2Positive transfer: resultNegative transfer: Interlingual transferIntralingual transfer source2 Reviewing SLA bases1. Objectives of this unit Definition of language Different views about language Nature of language learning Understanding of L1 acquisition2. What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (Wardhaugh, 1977)3. Different views about languagel Those different views about language help to give different definition of language. l It might be safe to say that different views of linguists can be the reflection of the nature of language itself.The primitive views1. language is an organism2. language is writing3. language is conventionalThe structuralism viewLanguage is speechLanguage is a structural systemLanguage is an arbitrary systemThe functionalist view 1. The instrumental function 2. The interactional function 3. The interpersonal function 4. The other (page 14)4. The nature of Learning Learning explained by Longman Dictionary: “acquiring or getting of knowledge of a subject or skill, by study, experience, or instruction.”Kimble & Garmezy(1963) “Learning is a relatively permanent change in a behavioral tendency and is the result of reinforced practice”Brown (1994) defines learning more precisely:1) acquisition or getting2) retention of knowledge, information, or skill3) storage systems, memory, and cognition4) active, conscious focus on and acting upon events outside or inside the organism5) relatively permanent, but subject to forgetting6) involves some form of practice7) learning is a change of behaviorReber (1967) classified two types of learning:Explicit learning . Explicit knowledge Implicit learning . Tacit (implicit) knowledgeAnd thus, two kinds of knowledge:Explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge4. Theories in L1 Acquisitionl Behaviorist learning theory (行为主义) (popular in the 1950s and 60s) l The Nativist approach （内在论）l The Cognitive approach （认知论）l The Functional approach （功能观）1 4.1 Behaviorist learning theory (popular in the 1950s and 60s) (1) B.F. Skinner, Watson (2) Viewpoint: Language learning is a kind of behavior similar to other human behavior. Language is learnt in much the same way as anything else is learnt. 都是经过刺激反应而逐渐形成习惯的结果 stimulus organism response input the learner imitatione.g. This is a pencil This is a pencil. (3) four steps for a child to acquire his/her L1: Imitation reinforcement repetition habituation 模仿 强化 重复 成形2 The cognitive approach (1) Pigget, (Swiss), Vygovsky, (Former Soviet) (2)viewpoint: Childrens language development relies on their understanding of the world or cognition. (3) its different from the nativist approach3 L1 acquisition vs. FLL 1) physiological aspect 2) cognitive aspect 3)affective aspect 4)sociocultural aspect 5)learning condition3 Analyzing Learner languageContents of learningContrastive AnalysisError AnalysisContrastive Interlanguage Analysis1. Contrastive Analysis1 What is Contrastive analysis？A systematic method of comparing two or more languages or subsystems of languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities between them.2 Hypothesis of contrastive analysis 1. The strong version It is possible to contrast the system of one language (the grammar, phonology and lexicon) with the system of a second language in order to predict the difficulties which a speaker of the second language will have in learning the first language, and to construct reading materials to help her learn that language. 2. the weak versionLinguists only use the best linguistic knowledge available to tem to account for observed difficulties in L2 learning. It does not require the prediction of those difficulties, and conversely, of those learning points that do not create any difficulties.It only tries to explain those difficulties. 3. Procedures of CA 1 Description a formal description of the relevant features of each language compared. 2. Selection a selection of subsystems predicted to present difficulty in order to establish the comparability. 3. Comparison and contrast the identification of areas of difference and similarity; and 4. Prediction identification of possible areas that cause errors.3 Error AnalysisWhat is EA?It aims to 1) find out how well the learners know about his language;2) find out how the learners learn an L2;3) obtain information on common difficulties in L2 learning;4) Serve as an aid in teaching or in the preparation and compilation of teachingDefining errors Till now, there is still controversy of how language error is. However, it is still possible to provide a more safe definition of error. Based on many scholars, we could define error as: the incorrect or inappropriate use or comprehension of the target language, which seems to be deviant from what regarded as the norm by native speakers because of the factors like language differences and similarities, language transfer, ignorance, forgetting, anxiety, false learning strategies, etc.The Nature of ErrorsTo do a good job in the study of errors, its essential to understand what the error is. The nature of an error could not merely be accounted for as “failure in habit-formation” as argued by behaviorists or “distance” between learners UG (Universal Grammar) and the TL (Target Language) as appealed by mentalists. In fact, errors could appear because of various factors concerning language learning, and the nature of an error will be different accordingly. Aspect of Knowledge students have to learn many rules or principles of the target language by formal instruction, and naturally, the lack of the related knowledge of target language will directly result in errors. For example, if learners havent mastered the rules of passive voice or subjunctive mood, its hard for them to recollect the required knowledge from memory and therefore, errors are inevitable.Aspect of CognitionAs a matter of fact, where rate is concerned, there is evidence that older learners are better than younger ones in understanding the language. Therefore, it is natural to see that as to some complex items, younger learners tend to make errors easily. It is just for the same reason that we could not expect the learner at the beginning stage to master the “subjunctive mood” or even more complicated Aspect of Affection Learners affection in fact plays an important role in learning, which no one can ignore. Negative influence on learners affection will directly result in decline of learning innately, which could be manifested in various aspects. Students anxiety, self-esteem, lower motivation as well as some other affective factors will for sure lead to errors to some extent if treated inappropriately. How to deal with errorsCollectingdescribingIdentifyingAnalyzingEvaluation CorrectionError TreatmentCorrection must be carried out according to the situation delicately. In an effective correction, factors like the teacher, students, peers, etc. must be considered comprehensively. In all, there are at least the following ways for teachers to choose:Providing Useful FeedbackSelf-CorrectionPeer CorrectionDynamic Teacher Correction Establishing Students Error Portfolio4 Identify Learner DifferenceContents of this chapter1. Learning Styles2. Learning Strategies3. Language aptitude4. Learning Intelligence5. Learning motivation6. Learning personality7. Learning age1. Learning Styles1.1 Definition of Learning StylesLearning style refers to the way a learner likes to learn. It is put into action by specific learning strategies.According to Gass (2008), learning style is the preferences that an individual has of obtaining, processing, and retaining information. In other words, how do individuals approach the taskof learning? The term learning style is often used interchangeably with personality, although the former is undoubtedly more variable, whereas the latter refers to a stable trait of an individual.1.2 What are the necessary aspects?According to Oxford and Anderson (1995), there are six interrelated aspects: 1) The cognitive aspect: preferred or habitual patterns of mental functioning2) The executive aspect: the extent to which learners look for order, organization, and closure in managing the learning processes.3) The affective aspect: attitudes, beliefs, and values that influence what the learner focus on most.4) The Social aspect: the preferred degree of involvement with other people in learning.5) The physiological element: involve