医学英语教程Chapter 4.doc

Chapter 4 PrefixesI. This chapter on prefixes, like the preceding chapter on suffixes, gives you practice in word analysis and provides a foundation for the study of the terminology of body systems that follows. The list of combining forms, suffixes, and meanings in Section II helps you analyze terminology in the rest of the chapter. The appendices are included to provide more complete understanding of the terms and to explain the words with reference to the anatomy, physiology, and pathology of the body.II. Combining Forms and SuffixesCombining FormsCombiningCombiningFormMeaningFormMeaningcarp/owrist bonesnect/o(jrjto bind, tie, connect -jfvcib/omealsnorm/orule, ordercis/oto cutox/ooxygencost/oribpub/opubis (pubic bone); anterior portion of the pelvic or hipbonecutane/oskinseps/oinfectiondactyl/ofingers, toessomn/osleepduct/oto lead, carryson/osoundflex/oto bendthe/oto put, placefurc/oforking, branchingthel/onipplegloss/otonguethyr/oshield; the shape of the thyroidglyc/osugargland resembled (-oid) a shield to those who named itimmun/oprotectiontop/oplace, position, location vqmorph/oshape, formtox/opoisonmort/odeathtrache/owindpipe, tracheanat/ibirthurethr/ourethraSuffixesSuffixMeaningSuffixMeaning-blastembryonic, immaturetfT genproducing, forming-cyesispregnancy J p -lapseto slide, fall, sag-drometo run-lysisbreakdown, separation, loosening-fusioncoming together-Meterto measure -missionto send-plasmdevelopment, formation-orone who-pneabreathing-partumbirth, labor-ptosisdroop, sag, prolapse-phoriato bear, carry; feeling (mentalV -rrheaflow, dischargestate)-stasisstop, control; place-physisto growV-trophynourishment, development-plasiadevelopment, formationIII.Prefixes and TerminologyPrefix MeaningTerminologyMeaninga-, an- no, not, without apneaanoxiaab-away from (notice abnormal that the b facesaway from the a.) abductorA muscle that draws a limb away from the body.ad-toward (notice adductor_that the d faces toward the a.) adrenal glands1_na-up, apart anabolism_analysis_Urinalysis (urin/o + anjalysis) is a laboratory examination of urine that aids in the diagnosis of many medical conditions.ante-before, forward ante cibum_a. c. is a notation on prescription orders. It means before meals.anteflexionantepartum_anti-againstantisepsis An antiseptic (-sis changes to -tic to form an adjective) substance fights infection. Anti- is pronounced an-tuh.antibiotic2 antigen3In this word, anti- stands for antibody.antibodyantitoxin This is an antibody, often from an animal (such as a horse), which acts against a toxin.Auto- self, ownautoimmune4 Bi- twobifurcationNormal splitting into two branches, such as the trachea bifurcating to form bronchi.bilateral brady- slowbradycardia Usually a pulse of less than 60 beats per minute.cata-downcatabolism con-with, togethercongenital anomaly5 connective Connective tissue supports and binds other body tissue and parts. Bone, cartilage, and fibrous tissue are connective tissues.contra- against, opposite contraindication _Contra- means against in this term.contralateral6Contra- means opposite in this term.de-down, lack ofdehydration dia- through, complete diameter_diarrhea dialysis_dys-bad, painful, dyspnea_difficult, abnormal Often caused by respiratory or cardiac conditions, strenuous exercise, or anxiety.ec-, ecto- out, outside ectopic pregnancy _en-, endo- in, within endocardium _endoscope_endotracheal_An endotracheal tube, placed through the mouth into the trachea, is used for giving oxygen and in general anesthesia proceduresepi- upon, on, above epithelium_eu- good, normal euphoria _ Exaggerated feeling of well-being euthyroid _ Normal thyroid functionex- out, away from exophthalmos _ Protrusion of the eyeball associated with enlargement and overactivity of the thyroid gland; also called proptosis (pro = forward, -ptosis = prolapse)hemi- half hemiglossectomy_hyper-excessive, above hyperglycemia_ hyperplasiaIncrease in cell numbers. Hyperplasia is a characteristic of tumor growth.hypertrophyIncrease in size of individual cells. Muscle, cardiac, and renal cells exhibit hypertrophy when workload is increased.hypo- deficient, under hypodermic_ hypoglycemia_in- not insomniac_in- into, within incision _infra- beneath infracostal_inter- between intercostal_ Intercostal muscles lie between adjacent ribsintra- into, within intravenous _macro- large macrocephaly_ This is a congenital anomalymal- bad malignant _ From the Latin “ignis,” meaning “fire”. Benign (ben=good) tumors are noncancerous, whereas malignant tumors are cancerous. malaise _ From the French “malaise,” meaning “a vague feeling of bodily discomfort meta- beyond, change metacarpal bones _The five hand bones lie beyond the wrist bones but before the finger bones (phalanges).metamorphosis_Meta- means change in this term. The change in development from the larval (caterpillar) stage to the adult (butterfly) is metamorphosis.metastasis _Meta = beyond and -stasis = control, or meta = change and -stasis = place. A metastasis is a cancerous tumor that has spread to a secondary location.micro- small microscope_neo- new neonatal_ The neonatal period is the interval from birth to 28 days neoplasm _A neoplasm may be benign or malignant.pan- all pancytopenia_ Deficiency of erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytespara-abnormal, beside, near paralysis_ Abnormal disruption of the connection between nerve and muscle. Originally from the Greek “paralusis,” meaning to separate, lossen on one side, describing the loss of movement on one side of the body parathyroid glands9 _per- through percutaneous_peri- surrounding pericardium_periosteum_poly-many, much polymorphonuclear_polyneuritis_post-after, behind postmortem_postpartum_pre- before, in front of precancerous_prenatal_pro- before, forward prodrome_ Prodromal symptoms appearbefore the actual illness and signal its onset Prolapse_pseudo- false pseudocyesis Development of signs of pregnancy but without the presence of an embryo. The origin of this condition may be psychogenic, or caused by tumor and endocrine dysfunction.re-back, again relapse_ A disease or its symptoms return after an apparent recovery. Remission_ Symptoms lessen and the patient feels better. Remission may be spontaneous or the result of treatment. In some cases the remission is permanent and the disease is cured. recombinant DNA11 _Genetic engineering uses recombinant DNA techniques.retro- behind, backward retroperitoneal_ retroflexion _ An abnormal position of an organ, such as the uterus, bent or tilted backward.sub-under subcutaneous _supra-above, upper suprapubic_ The pubis is one of pair of pubic bones that forms the anterior part of the pelvic bonesyn-, sym- together, with syndactyly_ Webbed fingers or toes Synthesis _ In protein synthesis, complex proteins are built up from simpler amino acids. syndrome12_ Before the letters b, m, and p, syn becomes sym. symbiosis13_ symmetry_ Equality of parts on opposite sides of the body. What is asymmetry? symphysis14_tachy-fast tachypnea _trans- across, through transfusion _ Transfer of blood or blood parts from one person to another transurethral15 _ultra- beyond, excess ultrasonography16_uni- one unilateral _IV. AppendicesAppendix A: Adrenal GlandsThe adrenal glands are endocrine glands located above each kidney. They secrete chemicals (hormones) that affect the bodys functioning. One of these hormones is adrenaline (epinephrine). It causes the bronchial tubes to widen, the heart to beat more rapidly, and blood pressure to rise (Fig. 4-1).Appendix B: AntibioticAn antibiotic destroys or inhibits the growth of microorganisms (small living things) such as bacteria. Penicillin, the first antibiotic, was cultured from immature plants (molds) and found to inhibit bacterial growth.Appendix C: Antigens and Antibodies; the Rh ConditionAn antigen is a substance, usually foreign to the body (such as a poison, virus, or bacterium), that stimulates the production of antibodies. Antibodies are protein substances made by white blood cells in response to the presence of foreign antigens. For example, the flu virus (antigen) enters the body, causing the production of antibodies in the bloodstream. These antibodies then attach to and destroy the antigens (viruses) that produced them. The reaction between an antigen and an antibody is called an immune reaction (immun/o means protection).Another example of an antigen-antibody is the Rh condition. A person who is Rh+ has a protein coating (antigen) on his or her red blood cells (RBCs). This specific antigen factor is something that the person is born with and is normal. People who are Rh have normal RBCs as well, but their red cells lack the Rh factor antigen.If an Rh woman and an Rh+ man conceive an embryo, the embryo may be Rh or Rh+. A dangerous condition arises only when the embryo is Rh+ (because this is different from the Rh mother). During delivery of the first Rh+ baby, some of the babys blood cells containing Rh+ antigens can escape into the mothers bloodstream. This sensitizes the mother so that she produces a low level of antibodies to the Rh+ antigen. Because this occurs at delivery, the first baby is generally not affected and is normal at birth. Sensitization can also occur after a miscarriage or an abortion.Figure 4-2Rh condition as an example of an antigen-antibody reactionDifficulties arise with the second Rh+ pregnancy. If the embryo is Rh+ again, during pregnancy the mothers acquired antibodies (from the first pregnancy) enter the embryos bloodstream. These antibodies attack and destroy the embryos Rh+ RBCs. The embryo attempts to compensate for this loss by making many new, but immature RBCs (erythro- biists). The infant is born with hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) or erythroblastosis fetalis.One of the clinical symptoms of HDN is jaundice (yellow skin pigmentation). Jaundice results from excessive destruction of RBCs. When RBCs break down (hemolysis), the hemoglobin within the cells produces bilirubin (a chemical pigment). High levels of bilirubin in the bloodstream (hyperbilirubinemia) cause jaundice. To prevent bilirubin from affecting the brain cells of the infant, newborns are treated with exposure to bright lights (phototherapy). The light decomposes the bilirubin, which is excreted from the infants body.Physicians administer Rh immune globulin to an Rh woman within 72 hours after each Rh+ delivery, abortion, or miscarriage. The globulin binds to Rh+ cells that escape into the mothers circulation and prevents formation of Rh+ antibodies. This protects future babies from developing HDN. Figure 4-2 reviews the Rh antigen-antibody reaction.Appendix D: AutoimmunePart of the normal immune reaction (protecting the body against foreign invaders) involves making antibodies to fight against viruses and bacteria. However, in an autoimmune disease, the body makes antibodies against its own good cells and tissues, causing inflammation and injury. Examples of autoimmune disorders are rheumatoid arthritis, affecting joints; systemic lupus erythematosus, affecting connective tissues, skin, and internal organs; and Graves disease, causing hyperthyroidism.Appendix E: Congenital Anomaly An anomaly is an irregularity in a structure or organ. Examples of congenital anomalies include webbed fingers or toes and heart defects. Some congenital anomalies are hereditary, whereas others are produced by factors present during pregnancy. For example, cocaine addiction in the pregnant mother produces addiction and brain damage in the infant at birth.Appendix F: ContralateralAfter a stroke involving the motor (movement) area of the brain, the contralateral side of the body often demonstrates a deficit. This means that if brain damage is on the right side of the brain, the patient will have paralysis on the left side of the body. Muscles on one side,of the body are controlled by nerves on the opposite (contralateral) side of the brain. Ipsilateral (ipsi- means same) means the same side.Appendix G: DialysisDialysis literally means complete separation. A dialysis machine (artificial kidney) can completely separate out from the blood the harmful waste products of the body that are normally removed by the urine.Appendix H: Ectopic PregnancyIn a normal pregnancy, the embryo develops within the uterus. In an ectopic pregnancy, the embryo implants outside the uterusmost often in the fallopian tubes and sometimes on the ovary or within abdominal cavity (Fig.4-3)Appendix I: Parathyroid GlandsThere are four parathyroid glands located on the dorsal side of the thyroid gland. They are endocrine glands that produce a hormone and function entirely separately from the thyroid gland. Parathyroid hormone increases blood calcium and maintains it at a normal level.Appendix J: ProlapseThe suffix -lapse means to slide, sag, or fall. If an organ or tissue prolapses, it slides forward or downward. For example, if the muscles that hold the uterus in place become weak, the uterus may slide downward, or prolapse toward the vagina (Fig. 4-4).Appendix K: Recombinant DNAThis is the process of taking a gene (a region of DNA) from one organism and inserting it (recombining it) into the DNA of another organism. An example is the recombinant DNA technique used to manufacture insulin outside the body. The gene that codes for insulin (i.e., contains the recipe for making insulin) is cut out of a human, chromosome (using special enzymes) and transferred into a bacterium, such as Escherichia coli. The bacterium then contains the gene for making human insulin and, because it divides very rapidly, can produce insulin in large quantities. Diabetic patients, unable to make their own insulin, can use this synthetic product. Scientists have also developed the technique of polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a method of producing multiple copies of a single gene, which is an important tool i