5新托福阅读部分的“方便”品.doc

新托福阅读部分的“方便”品吴 鹏“方便”语出法华经方便品：“吾从成佛以来，种种因缘、种种譬喻，广演言教，无数方便，引导众生令离所执。”本文这里的所谓方便，理正为方，言巧称便，就是根据形势的变化（这里主要指针对新托福考试的变化），选择随机应变的教化机智，即学习方法。新托福考试将于2006年8月在中国大陆地区推出。这一消息牵动着千万考生的心。许多考生对于新托福考试的形式感到十分的陌生，由此也对新托福考试产生了相当的恐惧心理。本文将深度剖析新托福考试中阅读部分的特点，目的在于一方面帮助考生全面而深刻地了解新托福阅读部分的考试特点，另一方面帮助考生透彻地分析新托福阅读部分考试的规律。一、新托福考试阅读部分的六大变化1. 新托福考试阅读部分中的四个主要按键及功能在新托福考试阅读部分，阅读文章出现在电脑屏幕的右边（这和GRE机考形式恰好相反，因为在GRE机考阅读部分，阅读文章出现在电脑屏幕的左边），而相应的题目出现在电脑屏幕的左边。因为文章很长，所以需要借助于滚动条的滚动，才能看到全文。在阅读部分，考生可以通过点击Next button向前浏览所有的问题，也可以通过点击Back button回视前面的问题，并返回到文章的最开头。托福阅读部分还拥有一个review功能的按键，通过点击Review button考生将会在Review Screen看到所有的问题，和看到这些问题的状态-answered, not answered, not yet seen。最后，新托福的阅读部分还有一个Help button，考生点击这个按键之后，将会得到a list of topics for which helpful explanations are available。2. 新托福考试阅读部分的文章长度、题目数量及考试时间均有变化原有形式的托福考试，其阅读部分的时间为55分钟，需要完成5篇文章，每篇文章的长度在350字左右，每篇文章后面的题目数量在10道左右，也就是说题目的总数量为50道。而新托福考试阅读部分的具体安排见下表：READING SECTIONReading TextTime AllowedLength of PassageNumber of QuestionsPassage 120 minutes600-75012-14Passage 220 minutes600-75012-14Passage 320 minutes600-75012-14Passage 4 & 520 minutes600-75012-14 each需要注意的是：(1) Passage 4 & 5属于加试部分，即考生在阅读部分所遇到的文章数量可能是3篇，也可能是5篇，那么相应的考试的时间为60分钟和100分钟；(2) 阅读部分的考试时间是Preset的，即阅读部分考试的总时间是固定不变的，但做每篇文章，做每道题目所花费的时间由考生自己灵活掌握；(3) 阅读文章明显增长，达到了700字左右。3. 新托福考试阅读文章中的专业词汇的处理和题目定位的处理均有变化新托福阅读部分一个非常glossary的特点是：A word in blue in a passage indicates that a definition is available for the word. Clicking on the word brings up this definition。也就是说凡是在阅读文章中所遇到的生僻的专业词汇，都会呈现出蓝色，点击后将会给出这个单词的定义和解释。新托福阅读部分中所有的关于Language Use的问题都是对文章中的一个单词、一句话或者一个段落所发问的，并且对于此类题目定位处理上的一个最为鲜明的特点是：Whenever a question refers to a particular word or sentence in the passage, the word or sentence is highlighted. You don not need to search for it. Detail questions on TOEFL iBT identify the particular paragraph in which the answer can be found, so you do not need to scan the passage in order to find the location of an answer to a detail question.也就是说新托福考试的阅读不再考察Language Use问题定位的能力。这大大降低了题目本身的难度。4. 新托福考试阅读部分中的干扰选项（distracter）的设置更为复杂通过上面的第3点我们已经知道在新托福阅读部分考试中，很多的细节题目不再需要定位了，这就降低了题目本身的难度。ETS为了在题目难度上做一平衡，采取的方法是将干扰选项的设置变得更为复杂，大有向GRE靠拢的趋势，不仅干扰选项增多，干扰性也明显增强了，尤其对于Paraphrasing的题型显得尤为突出。5. 新托福考试阅读部分的题型形式变化多端，分值也呈现出巨大变化新托福考试题目的形式变得多样化了，相应题目的分值也出现了巨大变化。我们可以把新托福中的阅读题型分为三种：(1) Click on One Answer: For this multiple-choice type of question, you will choose the best of four possible answers，此类题目是传统的四选一的题目，其分值为1分；(2) Add a Sentence: For this type of question, you will click on a square to add a sentence to the passage. 这种插入句子题的文章中有4个“”，然后题目给考生一句话，问考生这句话应该插在文章中哪一个所标“”的地方。一般，题目的提问方式是这样的：Look at the four squares that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage，此类题目的分值也为1分；(3) Drag Answer Choices: 此类题型在做法上的最大特点在于它不是要求点击选项，而是拖拉考生认为正确的选项到相应的表格中。其具体形式又可以分为两大类，而其分值也会随着具体形式的变化而变化：A. Summarizing the Most Important Points题型:此类题目的提问方式是这样的：An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentenced do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage。这类题目主要考查了考生对于重要论据和重要观点的掌握，分值为2分，具体评分规则如下：Points PossibleAnswers CorrectPoints Earned 3 points32210-10B. Understanding details as they relate to the main idea (schematic table)题型：此类题型主要考查了考生对于结构重要信息的掌握，其提问方式是：Select the appropriate sentences from the answer choices and match them to the type of - that they describe. TWO of the answer choices will NOT be used。根据answer choices的数量，7个中选5个或者9个中选7个归类，其相应的分值为3分和4分。具体评分规则如下：Points PossibleAnswers CorrectPoints Earned3 Points5342310-204 Points746352410306. 新托福考试阅读部分增加了4种题型新托福考试阅读部分增加了4种题型，分别是Paraphrasing题型（同义改写题型），Understanding Coherence题型（插入句子题型），Organization Information题型（结构信息表格题型），Summarizing the Most Important Points题型（总结重要观点题型）。二、怎样做到Substantial Understanding 新托福考试阅读部分所选取的文章均节选自college-level的美国大学课本，这些文章被用来介绍某个学科或者某个论题，并且这些节选文章几乎没有做任何的修改，其主要目的在于考查考生是否能够彻底地理解这些学术化环境中的文章。那么怎样才能做到substantial understanding呢？下面笔者将会从7个方面对此问题做出回答。新托福考试阅读部分中的文章均严格地符合学术化英语文章的典型结构，主要由三个部分组成：Introduction, Body paragraphs和Conclusion。其实要做到substantial understanding最主要的就是要针对文章这三个部分不同的特点做好张弛有道的分析性阅读。下面笔者将以一篇文章为例进行具体的分析。1. Introduction部分的分析性阅读要点：(1) Introduction部分一般说来就是整篇文章的首段。而全文首句的仔细分析是非常关键的。它虽然未必会给出全文的主题mail idea，但是它一定会给出这篇文章论述的范围，即全文的focus或topic的部分或全部信息；(2) 接着再读首段之后的其它句子（首段末句除外）时，除了读懂句子传达的信息，还应该思考这样一个问题：Are the remaining sentences except the last sentence of first paragraph in the introduction more general or more specific than the first sentence? 如果是泛泛的内容，那么这些句子所起的作用是为了补充第一句所传达的topic信息；相反如果是细节性的内容，那么这些句子所起的作用是为了帮助作者清晰地定义第一句所传达的topic信息，即这时候全文的第一句已经将topic的全部信息表达出来了。于是在读完这些句子之后考生应该再进一步问自己一个问题：“What is the topic of this passage?”(3) 首段的末句在全文中所扮演的作用有两个：一是常常给出全文的主题，即是thesis statement；二是将会给出后面段落重点论述的方向，即起到承上启下的作用。在读完文章的introduction部分之后，考生还需要进一步问一个问题：“What is the thesis of this passage?”(4) 如果是science和technology theme为题材的文章，其introduction部分还扮演了一个重要的作用称之为lead. The lead generally answers all or most of the main 6 questions a writer must answer: who，what，when，where，why，and how。所以考生遇到此两类题材的文章还需要在分析introduction部分的内容时读出这6个点来。The Underground RailroadThe Underground Railroad was one of the most fascinating and gripping phenomena to emerge from the brutal period of American slavery. In fact, it was neither underground nor any kind of railroad, but an intricate, loosely organized, and highly secretive network of people dedicated to helping black slaves escape from bondage in the southern states to freedom in the northern United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Caribbean. Because few of its members dared to keep records of their activities, much of the Railroads history has been transmitted orally, or lost. Nevertheless, it is possible to reconstruct a vivid picture of the people involved and the great challenges they faced.这是文章的首段，从其首句The Underground Railroad was one of the most fascinating and gripping phenomena to emerge from the brutal period of American slavery.我们可以得出有关topic的信息：这篇文章一定是围绕着Underground Railroad这一现象展开文章的论述；接下来的几句话清晰地定义了上面的topic，讲的是帮助黑人奴隶成功逃往北方的网络组织结构及成员；首段的最后一句话Nevertheless, it is possible to reconstruct a vivid picture of the people involved and the great challenges they faced.给出了全文的主题和下文论述的方向：重现当时关于Underground Railroad现象的历史画面。2. Body Paragraphs部分的分析性阅读要点：(1) Body paragraphs的每一段的首句都是其当段的topic sentence，也就是说考生在读完body paragraphs部分的每一段的首句后都应该问这样一个问题：“What is the topic of this paragraph?”(2) Body paragraphs的每一段的其余句子作起的作用是通过给出关键的逻辑细节去支持相应的topic，所以读完body paragraphs的每一段后还应该问这样一个问题：“What are the most important points expressed in this paragraph?”(3) 在草稿纸上，做出逻辑框架行文图，用图表的形式去表明，每一个段落之间及每一个段落与mail idea之间是怎样发生逻辑联系的。(4) 关注每句首句中的repeated key words (重复关键词汇)，因为它们串起来之后就会比较清晰而且全面地揭示mail idea的内容。Established as early as the late 16th century, when the first captive laborers were brought to the New World from Africa, the Railroad consisted of an informal arrangement of “stationmasters”people who provided food and refuge, their “station”the houses, shops, or barns where they provided shelter, and “conductors”those who guided escaped slaves along the difficult routes to safety. All kinds of people worked on the Railroad, including preachers, politicians, farmers, storekeepers, former slaves, and even Native American. Most had no knowledge that they worked as part of an organization that reached all across the United Statesbut they were united by their hatred of the institution of slavery and their desire to help those struggling to escape.Perhaps the most famous of Railroad workers was Harriet Tubman. Born a slave in Maryland, Tubman escaped through the Railroad at the age of 25, and eventually became a conductor herself. Over a tenyear period, she made nearly 20 trips back into the South to lead to safety many members of her family, and dozens of others besides, perhaps as many as 300 in all.The conditions faced by runaways were severe. Often forced to travel at night, they would navigate by the North Star. Rivers, swamps, and forests lay in their way. They could carry little food, and depended on stationmasters and conductors to keep them from starvation. Sometimes the lucky ones could travel by wagon, ship, or horse, but most had to go on foot. If they were unable to actually leave the southern states, they might have no choice but to take up residence deep in swamps or in mountainous areas, separated from their families and isolated from the world, or to join communities of Native Americans.The risks faced by fugitives were formidable Recapture was unthinkable. Escapees would endure terrible punishments, including mutilation or amputation of limbs, harder labor even than before was virtually guaranteed, or sale “down the river”deeper into the South and even farther from freedom. After the Fugitive Slave Law was passed in 1850, a new class of professional slavehunters arose, paid handsomely to catch runway slaves and return them to their owners; they could even pursue their quarry into the free northern regions. Young men were the most successful in traveling the Railroad, though sometimes women and children would also manage to escape. Strength and speed were critical. Slaves would occasionally employ disguises, trying to pass themselves as messengers on errands, or even, in the case of the lighterskinned slaves, as whites. Holidays and weekends were the best times to escape, or any other circumstance that permitted a head start on the authorities.这是文章的第2段到第5段。其中第2段的首句中的the Railroad consisted of an informal arrangement of “stationmasters” and “conductors”内容指出文章的第2段论述的中心在于介绍Railroad的组成或者构成；第3段的首句Perhaps the most famous of Railroad workers was Harriet Tubman.表明文章的第3段是承接2段的中心举出其成员组成中的典型例子；第4段的首句The conditions faced by runaways were severe.清晰地指出第4段论述的中心在于逃跑途中的艰辛条件；而第5段的首句The risks faced by fugitives were formidable Recapture was unthinkable.也同样清晰地表明了第5段论述的中心是论述这些逃跑人员所面临的巨大风险。其逻辑框架图如下：第2段topic: Railroad的组成和构成第3段topic: 给出Railroad的人员组成的典型例子全文的topic:underground railroad的历史画面重现第4段topic: 论述了逃跑途中的艰辛条件第5段topic: 论述了逃跑人员面临的各种风险3. Conclusion部分的分析性阅读要点：(1) Conclusion通常为阅读文章的最后一段，也可能是文章末段的末句或者末两句，关注末段的首句，因为它会给出末段论述的方向；(2) Conclusion对全文所起的作用有三点：一是summarizes the most important points expressed in the passage但是不能给出任何新的重要观点；二是给出作者的态度方面的总结；三是给出一些延伸性的叙述。总之conclusion所起作用必然为上述三点之一；(3) 加入conclusion线索补充完善逻辑性文框架图。Activities on the Railroad reached a peak in the last few decades before the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861.The great political tension created by the institution of slavery was already tearing the country apart. Whites in the South generally felt that slavery was an indispensable part of their culture. Their economy certainly depended on it, and moreover, they resented being dictated to from the North and from Washington. Those in the North, on the other hand, could only see the brutality in slavery, and the hypocrisy it meant in a country claiming to be founded on the principle of freedom and equality for all mankind. Though terribly destructive, the Civil War ultimately settled the question, and with the ratification of the 13th amendment to the U.S. Construction on December 18, 1865, it became law what “neither slavery nor involuntary servitudeshall exist in the United States.”这是文章的第6段也是全文的最后一段。通过第6段的首句引出了这一段论述的方向：向着与Railroad关的American Civil War方向进一步做出延伸性的叙述，即给出了American Civil War爆发的原因及相应结果第2段topic: Railroad的组成和构成第3段topic: 给出Railroad的人员组成的典型例子全文的topic:underground railroad的历史画面重现第4段topic: 论述了逃跑途中的艰辛条件第5段topic: 论述了逃跑人员面临的各种风险第6段延伸性地讲述了American Civil War的爆发原因及结果小结：前面3点的分析能够帮助我们很好的做到对主题、逻辑结构、重要支持论点的分析和理解从而帮助我们顺利完成Identifying the main idea、Summarizing the most important points、Organization information三种题型的解答。4. 分析阅读文章的purpose和logical development：读完全文还应该思考一下下面的两个问题：一是作者写这篇文章的目的是三种中的哪一种呢？是Exposition: to present you with information on specific topic. These passage contain mostly facts.或者是Resolve: to find solution for some sort of dilemma. Usually there is a debate or question that needs an answer.抑或是Convince: to persuade you of the validity of a certain viewpoint or idea. They give an opinion and support that opinion with evidence。而上面的这篇文章的写作目的显然是Exposition；二是文章的作者使用了5种常见逻辑行文结构的哪种或哪几种呢？这5种常见的逻辑行文结构为：Classification (General & Specific)、Comparison &Contrast、Cause & Effect、Chronological和Problem & Solution。其中需要注意的是Comparison &Contrast类型的文章在写作具体形式上又可以分为Block format（判断标准是基于这样两个问题的回答：Are the objects of comparison discussed in separate paragraphs?及Does the body begin with a discussion of the features of one object and then move on to a comparison with the features of the second object in later paragraphs?）和Point-by-point format（判断的标准同样是基于两个问题的回答：Are the two (or more) objects being compared discussed in the same paragraphs?及Does the body begin with a discussion of how both objects compare in regards to one feature and then move on to compare the two objects on the basis of other features?）上面的这篇文章显然运用了Chronological的逻辑行文结构。5. 深刻分析和把握阅读文章中的direction words结构指示词：作者在文章的行文过程中，会通过direction words结构指示词告诉读者他的行文思路。所以考生在读文章时应该关注于文中的direction words，因为它们能够帮助你把握好文章的逻辑结构。其主要的direction words如下：(1) Classification or General & Specific结构的文章常用的direction words：数词, in addition, finally等；(2) Comparison & Contrast结构的文章常用的direction words：on the other hand, in contrast to, however；(3) Cause & Effect相应的direction words: one reason, due to ,because每段都有强因果的词汇去引导观点，尤其是关注文章首段末句的强因果表达；(4) Chronological相应的direction words：几乎每段都有时间词出现，并且按照大致的先后顺序出现，还有如early和ultimately等词汇。6. 深刻分析阅读文章中的Transitions与Coherence的联系(1) Transitions与Coherence定义：我们如此定义Coherence: is the quality of unity and order among the parts of a written passage. If a passage is coherent, there are logical and orderly connections among the ideas within sentences and among the sentences within paragraphs；我们不定义Transition但指出Transition的两种作用为help you move from one idea to the next和as clues to coherence because they connect ideas and control the order of sentences。(2) 常见使用的transitions见下面的表格：FUNCTIONTRANSITIONSAdditionAlso, another, as well as, other, finally, first, second, third, furthermore, moreover, not onlybut also, tooComparisonBoth, equally important, like, the same, similarly, similar toContrastAlthough, conversely, however, in contrast, instead, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, rather, unlike, whereas, whileCauseAs a result of , because, because of, due to, one reason is, since, at this point, in this caseResult / EffectAccordingly, as a result, consequently, otherwise, therefore, thusExampleFor example, for instance, next, to illustrate, such, such as, includingLimitAlthough, but, except for, even though, however, yetEmphasizeCertainly, clearly, indeed, in fact, most importantly, surely(3) 6种Cohesive Devices：Pronouns，Demonstrative pronouns，Demonstrative adjectives，Articles，上面表格提到的Transitional phrases，Repetition, synonym or slight variation of a word；(4) 针对的题目为插入句子题型。7. 读阅读文章的细节关键在于读出Rhetorical Function(1) Rhetorical Function (determining the purpose of details)的定义为：Refers to how the author intends to persuade the reader that the content of the writing is sound and believable.(2) 四种常见的Rhetorical Function：Defining: Apposition, noun phrases；Describing: Use of adjectives or lists of nouns to show details about size, shape, or to appeal to the senses；Exemplifying: use of vocabulary such as for example (instance), perhaps the most, and notably；Explaining: use of vocabulary such as contribute to, 不定式to, 分词作状语表示因果等。(3) 针对的是问细节作用的题型，其常见的三种提问方式为：Why；In order to； Mention to。而其考查的形式有两种：The first form presents the rhetorical device and asks its function；The second form of this question type presents the rhetorical function and asks how it is achieved.；(4) 常见标志词：for example, for instance, in other words, in particular, namely, specifically, such as, to illustrate, notably, perhaps the most.遇到这些标志词后，我们的阅读方法是重点读其前后