北京语言大学英语专业语言学 期末考试试题.docx

第一次第一次期末考试提纲及解析Final examination for Introduction to Linguistics (June, 2008).Translation(1x20=20%)Chinese into English=10English into Chinese=10. Fill in the blanks (2x15=30%)Fill in the blanks in sentences using linguistic terms.Answer briefly the following questions (5x4=20%).Short Essays (15x2=30%)Preparatory work expected. The list of terms for section and .Chapter 1: 1.duality 2.arbitrariness 3.creativity 4.onomatopoeia 5.ideational or informative function 6.interpersonal function 7.displacement 8.pragmatics 9.psycholinguistics 10.emotive functionChapter 2:1.allophone 2.vowel 3.phoneme 4.stressed syllables 5.consonant 6.the international phonetic alphabet 7.nasalization 8.distinctive features 9.tone 10.aspiration 11.vocal cords 12.place of articulation 13.manner of articulation 14. peak or nucleus 15.open syllable 16.dental 17.voicing 18.assimilation 19. articulation 20.speech organsChapter 3:1.grammatical word 2.lexical word 3. particle 4.auxiliary 5.morpheme 6.affix 7.free morpheme 8.bound morpheme 9.inflection 10.derivation11.morphology 12.semantic change 13.root 14.stem 15.allomorph Chapter 4: 1.syntactic relations 2.grammatical construction 3.immediate constituent 4.endocentric constructions 5.exocentric constructions 6.coordination 7.subordination 8.subject 9.prdicate 10.object 11.case 12.gender 13.tense 14.aspect 15.clauseChapter 5: 1.conceptual meaning 2.connotative meaning 3.thematic meaning 4.hyponymy 5. synonymy 6.antonymy 7.semantic features or components 8.metaphor 9.proposition 10. composite proposition. Short questions for section .1. What does the “emotive function” of language mean?2. What does duality as a design feature of language mean?3. What is the basic difference between the synchronic and diachronic studies of language?4. What is the difference between the descriptive and prescriptive studies of language?5. What is the difference between a free and bound morpheme? Give examples6. What is the difference between a root and a stem?7. What is the difference between tense and aspect?8. What is the difference between construction and constituents?9. What are the three categories of antonymy? Give examples.10. What is a preposition? Give examples.Essay questions for section .1. Discuss “creativity” and “displacement” as two design features of language.2. How are phonemes identified in the study of language?3. Discuss 5 common ways of English word formation. Give examples.4. How is the grammatical subject identified in the study of English?5. Discuss the difference between conceptual and associative meanings. Give examples.Preparatory Work of LinguisticsI. the list of terms Chapter 1: term meaningduality 二层性 The two subsystems of sound and meaning. (from notes).By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary levels are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(from textbook)二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。arbitrariness任意性 No logical relationship between language elements and their meaning.（from notes） Refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationshipto their meaning. 任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系。creativity创造性 Language users can understand and produce mew sentences to express new meanings.onomatopoeia拟声词 Words that sound like the sounds they describe.ideational or informative function概念功能或信息功能 When language is used to express human experience and knowledge about the erpersonal function人际功能 When language is used to establish and maintain status in a society. 用语言来建立并维持社会地位。displacement 移位性 Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. 人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间和空间上并不可及的事物，事件或观点pragmatics 语用学 The study of meaning in context. 在语境中研究意义。psycholinguistics 心理语言学 Investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and production utterances and in language acquisition for example. 考察语言和意识的相互关系，如话语的处理和产生，语言习得等。emotive function 感情功能 When language is used to change the emotional states of an audience or used to express the speakers emotions or attitudes towards something or some person. 改变听者的感情状态，或是表达说话者对某事或某人的感情或态度。Chapter 2term meaningallophones音位变体 variants of the same phonemevowel 元音a vowel is produced without such obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.phonemes音位 distinctive speech soundsstressed syllables 重读音节 书上没有明确解释，讲义上也没有consonant 辅音Consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.IPA: international phonetic alphabet 国际音标 The first version of the IPA was published in August 1888.Its main principles were that there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound, and that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears. The alphabet was to consist of as many Roman alphabet letters as possible, using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely necessary.nasalization:鼻音化 distinctive features: 区别性特征 a phoneme can be further analysed into a set of features and the distinctive features are phonological, binary, articulatorily and acoustically based features.tone 声调，音调 Pitch variations are called tones: tone languages and non-tone language.aspiration 送气 vocal cords 声带 place of articulation 发音部位 The place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made.发音部位指辅音的发音位置manner of articulation 发音方式The manner of articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished发音方式指完成发音过程的方法peak or nucleus 节峰 节核A syllable must have a nucleus or peak, which is often the task of a vowel. However, sometimes it is also possible for a consonant to play the part of a nucleus.音节必须有一个节核或节峰， 通常由原因来承担，但有时也可以由辅音来起节核的作用。open syllable 开音节 A syllable that has no coda is called an open syllable.没有节尾的音节叫开音节dental齿音 Dental sounds are made by the tongue tip or blade (depending on the accent or language) and the upper front teeth. Only fricative / /?/ are found to be strictly dental.产生于舌尖或舌叶（取决于口音或语言）和上齿处。只有擦音（/ /?/）是严格意义上的齿音。voicing带声性 （没找到定义）assimilation同化 when a sound take on some or all the characteristics of a neighbouring sound指一个音具有了临近音的一部分或者全部特征这一过程articulation发音 （没找到定义）speech organs (Vocal organs)发音器官 are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. 它们是人体中参与制造言语的部分Chapter 3term meaninggrammatical words语法词 Grammatical words are words which express grammatical meanings. E.g. pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions etc. function wordslexical words词汇词或实义词 Lexical words are words which have lexical content. E.g. nouns, verbs, etc .content wordsparticles语助词 the infinitive maker to and the negative maker not and the subordinate element in phrasal verbs, E.g. at in look at and out in knock outauxiliaries助词 the traditional auxiliary and model verbs such as do and canmorphemes语素 the minimal unit of meaning or the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and contentaffixes词缀 formative elements that have to be attached to at least another morphemefree morphemes自由词素 free morphemes can stand alone as words, e.g. dog, map, nation bound morphemes 粘着词素 bound morphemes have to appear with at least another morpheme, e.g. international, pre cede, etcInflection屈折 the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.derivation 派生 showing the relationships between roots and affixes and changing or not changing the word class of the original words, e.g. unconscious, booklet, disobey, lengthen, foolishmorphology 形态学 it is a branch of linguistics. It studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.semantic change 语义变化 there are three kinds of semantic changes, namely, broadening, narrowing, and meaning shift. Class shift and folk etymology also contribute to change in meaning.root词根 it is the base form of a word that cannot be further be analyzed without destroying its meaning. Or it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removedstem 词干 it is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.allomorph 词素变体 morphemic variantsChapter 4term meaningsyntactic relations 句法关系 the interrelationships between different constituents in sentence structure (没找到直接的定义，根据syntax的定义编的，大家凑合着看吧 _！)grammatical construction 语法结构 any syntactic construction which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contributions to the meaning or use the construction contains.immediate constituent直接成分 constituents immediately, directly below the level of a construction.endocentric constructions向心结构 an endocentric construction is a construction that has a centre or head which is functionally the same as the construction as a whole.exocentric construction离心结构 an exocentric construction is a construction which is not functionally the same as any of its constituents and there is no centre or head in it.coordination 并列 In English, two or more units of equal syntactic status maybe joined together to form a construction. This phenomenon is known as coordination and the construction is a coordinate construction.subordination 从属 Subordination refers to the process of linking constituents of different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, to form a construction.subject 主语 In some language the subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case. In some languages the subject is said to be the doer of the action. Another traditional definition of the subject is “what the sentence is about”predicate 谓语 Predicate refers to a major constituent of the sentences structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject are considered together.object 宾语 Object may refer to the receiver or goal of an action and is further analyzed into direct object and indirect object.case格 the grammatical category of nouns and pronouns. In English pronouns have three cases: nominative (I, he, they), accusative (me, him, them) and genitive (my, his, their), but nouns have only two cases: common (John, boy) and genitive (Johns, boys). 名词和代词的语法范畴。在英语中，代词有三种格：主格（我、他、他们）、受格（我，他，他们）和所有格（我的，他的，他们的）；名词只有两种格：普通格（约翰，男孩）和所有格（约翰的，男孩的）gender.性 the grammatical category of nouns and pronouns in English e.g. actor, actress; waiter, waitress; he, she. In English the gender distinction is natural as contrasted with the grammatical gender in many other European languages. There are only a small number of nouns indicating the gender distinction, and the elements indicating it are hardly inflectional.英语中名词和代词的语法范畴。在英语中性主要指自然性别，而其他许多欧洲国家语言中为语法性别。英语里只有少数的名词有性的差别，并且这些词很少有屈折变化。tense时态 the grammatical gender of verbs, indicating the time of an event in relation to the moment of speaking, e.g. I am a student. I went to the zoo yesterday. Traditionally: past, present, future, past future. Nowadays: past and present.动词的语法性，指示一个事件发生的时间与说话时的关系。aspect体 the grammatical category of verbs, distinguishing the status of events in relation to the time of another event, e.g. I was reading when he came to see me. When I got to the railway station the train had already left. Progressive or continuous vs perfect.动词的语法范畴，区分不同事件发生时的状态。clause小句A constituent with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a sentence, is a clause. Clauses can be classified into finite and non-finite clauses. Non-finite clauses include the traditional infinitive, participial and gerundial phrases拥有自身主语和谓语的成分如果被包含在句子中，这个成分就是小句。小句可以氛围限定小句和非限定小句，后者包括传统的不定式短语，分词短语和动名词短语。Chapter 5term meaningConceptual meaning概念意义 ：logical cognitive or denotative contentConnotative meaning内涵意义 : what is communicated by virtue of what language refers toThematic meaning主题意义 ：what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasisHyponymy下义词 ： refers to the sense relations between a more general, inclusive word and a more specific wordSynonymy同义关系 ： is the technical name for the sameness relation.Antonymy反义（关系） oppositeness relation. Gradable antonymy: e.g. big - small Complementary antonymy: The assertion of one means the denial of the other and the denial of one means the assertion of the other. Converse antonymy (relational opposites): the reversal of a relationship between two entities, e.g. buy sell,semantic features（语义特征） or components（语义部分） the meaning of a word is not an unanalysable whole. It may be seen as a complex of different semantic features. There are semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word. For example, boy: HUMAN, YOUNG, MALE. These are the three components of this word.metaphor隐喻 involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the position命题 what is expressed by a sentence which makes a posite proposition复合命题 covering both compound and complex propositions, introduced by J. Lyons.II. Short questions.1. What does the “emotive function” of language mean?When language is used to change the emotional states of an audience or used to express the speakers emotions or attitudes towards something or some person, e.g. “damn it!”2. What does duality as a design feature of language mean? It means human language possesses the property of having two levels of structures, such that sound and meaning, and this is a unique feature of human language.3. What is the difference between the synchronic and diachronic studies of the language? Synchronic studies takes a fixed instant as its point of observation, in other words, it is of a single stage of the language. But since language is changing all the time, so synchronic study is a fiction. Diachronic study is the study of a language through the course of its history, on the otherwise.4. What is the basic difference between the descriptive and prescriptive studies of language?The distinction lies in the prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. Such as: dont say X is prescriptive study, and people dont say X is descriptive study. And we say linguistic is a descriptive science, because the linguist tries to discover the rules of language communities, but not to impose other rules. So the nature of linguistics determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.5. What is the difference between a free and a bound morpheme? Give examples.Those morphemes which can stand alone as words are free morphemes. For example, dog, nation and close are free morphemes. Those morphemes which have to appear with at least another morpheme are bound morphemes. For example, -s in dogs, -al in national and dis- in disclose are bound morphemes. The difference between them is whether they can make up words by themselves or not.6. What is the difference between a root and stem?Root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. That is to say, the part of the word left when all the affixes are removed, e.g. internationalism. Stem is a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be attached, so friend- in friends and friendship in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem may be the same as a root, whereas the latter indicates that a stem may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix.7. What is the difference between tense and aspect ?Tense is a grammatical category of verbs, indicating the time of an event in relation to the moment of speaking. Traditionally: past, present, future, past future. Nowadays : only past and present in English.Aspect is a grammatical category of verbs, distinguishing the status of events in relation to the time of another event. There are 2 aspects in English: progressive and perfect.8. What is the dfference between construction and constituent ?Construction is the grammatical structure of a sentence or any other smaller units, represented by a set of elements and relation between elements.Constituent is a component part of a construction.9. What are the three categories of antonymy? Give examples.The three categories are:1) Gradable antonymy. Example: good: bad, long: short2) Complementary antonymy: Example: alive: dead male: female3)Converse antonymy: Example: but: sell lend: borrow10. What is a proposition? Give examples.According to Lyons(1977:142-2), “ A proposition is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.” In this sense, we may very loosely equate the proposition of a sentence with its meaning.Examples:1) “ Jonh loves Mary.”2) “All men are rational.”III. Essay questions 1. Discuss “Creativity” and “displacement” as two design features of language.Creativity: language users can understand and produce new sentences to express new meanings. There are numerous examples to illustrate that words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people who had never come across that usage before. This ability is one of the things that sets human language apart from the kind of communication that goes on. By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.Displacement: language can be used to talk about things that