语言学Chapter5Syntax.ppt

1 ChapterFiveSyntax TheStudyofSentenceStructure 2 Teachingaims Enablethestudentstounderstandanddescribetheinternalstructuresofsentences 3 Teachingdifficulties Phrasestructureruledeepstructure surfacestructure treediagram 4 Whatissyntax Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences Sincesentenceisusuallyregardedasthelargestgrammaticalunitofalanguage syntaxhaslongbeenthecenterofgrammaticalstudy 5 Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures 6 Syntaxisthestudyofhowwordscombinetoformsentencesandtheruleswhichgoverntheformationofsentences 7 Thecompetence performancedistinction seeChomsky1965 isintendedtoreflectthedifferencebetweenthelinguisticknowledgeoffluentspeakersofalanguage competence andtheactualproductionandcomprehensionofspeechbythosespeakers performance P152 8 Hence theprimarydataforourstudyofsyntaxwillcomefromourownintrospectionaboutEnglishsentences thatis ourownlinguisticcompetence P153 9 TransformationalGenerativeGrammar TG Norm Chomsky themostinfluentiallinguistin20thcentury someimportantworks 1957 SyntacticStructure 1965 AspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax 1981 LecturesonGovernmentandBinding 1986 Barriers 1993 AMinimalistProgramforLinguisticTheory 1995 TheMinimalistProgram 1998 TheMinimalistInquiry 10 Chomskyismuchmoreinterestedinthesimilarities languageuniversals betweenlanguagesratherthantheirdifferences Linguistsshouldattempttofindagrammaticalframeworkwhichwillbesuitableforalllanguages Linguistsshouldconcentrateontheelementsandconstructionsthatareavailabletoalllanguagesratherthanonelementsthatactuallyoccurinalllanguages 11 TherearelikelytobeuniversalconstraintsonthewayslinguisticelementsarecombinedChomskyproposedthatthegrammarsofallhumanlanguagesshareacommonframework UniversalGrammar 12 Criteriaongoodgrammar ObservationaladequacyDescriptiveadequacyExplanatoryadequacyTheultimategoalforanytheoryistoexplain 13 TG 转换生成语法 differsfromtraditionalgrammarinthatitnotonlyaimsatlanguagedescription butalsoitsexplanation TG Transformational Generativegrammar 14 Givenwhatwehavesaidsofar itwouldappearthatinspecifyingthestructureofasentence wespecify 1 thelinearorderofwordsand 2 thepossiblegroupingsofthewords P156 15 Categories Categoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence anounphraseoraverb Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword levelcategories traditionally partsofspeech 16 SentenceClausePhraseWord Phrase ClauseandSentence 17 Word levelcategories Majorlexicalcategories N V Adj Prep MinorLexicalcategories Det Deg Qual Auxi Conj Det determinerDeg degreeQual qualifierAuxi auxiliaryConj conjunction 18 Thecriteriaonwhichcategoriesaredetermined MeaningInflectionDistributionNote Themostreliablecriterionofdeterminingaword scategoryisitsdistribution 19 Distributioniswhattypeofelementscancooccurwithacertainword E g Nounscantypicallyappearwithadeterminerlikethegirlandacard verbswithanauxiliarysuchasshouldstayandwillgo andadjectiveswithadegreewordsuchasverycoolandtoobright 20 Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures Phrasecategories thesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrasecategories suchasNP N VP V AP A PP P 21 Thestructure specifier head complementHead thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedSpecifier thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsComplement thewordsontherightsideoftheheads 22 thethreetallestgirls nominalphrase hasbeendoing verbalphrase extremelydifficult adjectivalphrase tothedoor prepositionalphrase veryfast adverbialphrase phrase 23 PhraseStructureTreediagram SNPVPDetNVNPDetNThegirlatetheapple 24 25 Phrasestructurerules Thegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule suchas NP Det N PP e g thosepeople thefishontheplate prettygirls VP Qual V NP e g alwaysplaygames finishassignments 26 AP Deg A PP veryhandsome verypessimistic familiarwith veryclosetoPP Deg P NP ontheshelf intheboat quitenearthestation 27 NOte Thearrowcanbereadas consistsof or branchesinto Theparenthesesmeanthattheelementinthemcanbeomittedandthethreedotsineachruleindicatethatothercomplementoptionsareavailable 28 Withintheearlystandardtransformationalmodelsitwasassumedthatbasicphrasemarkersaregeneratedbyphrasestructurerules PSrules P201 29 a S一NPAuxVPb NP一ArtNc VP一VNPForexample PSrule 76a tellsuschatS sentence canconsistof orcanbeexpandedas thesequenceNPAuxVP P201 30 Asnotedearlier eachlabeledpointinatreeisreferredtoasanode Thus tree5 21includesanSnode anNPnode anAuxnode aVPnode andsoon WesaythatthenodeSdominatesthenodesNP Aux andVP thenodeNPdominatesthenodesArtandN thenodeVPdominatesthenodesVandNP andsoon P201 31 thenodesNP Aux andVParereferredtoasthedaughternodesofthenodeS whichisthemothernode Hence NP Aux andVParesisternodeswithrespecttoeachother P202 32 thepeopleintheroomswillmovethedesk Inthisway eachwordofthesentenceisassignedtoacertainlexicalcategory partofspeech Thus thewordtheisconnectedbyabranchtothesymbolArt standingforArticle indicatingthattheisanarticle ThewordpeopleisconnectedbyabranchtothesymbolN standingforNoun indicatingthatpeopleisanoun P173 33 thepeopleintheroomswillmovethedesk ThewordinisconnectedbyabranchtothesymbolP standingforPreposition indicatingthatinisapreposition Shiftingovertotheright thewordmoveisconnectedbyabranchtothesymbolVstandingforVerb indicatingthatmoveisaverb P173 34 P173Tree5 1 35 Thus tree5 1representstheinformationcitedinand thelinearorderofwords andthecategorizationofwordsintopartsofspeech P173 36 Forexample thesequenceofwordstheroomisshownasanounphrase NP thatis thesymbolsArtandNareconnectedbybranchestothesymbolNP P173 TheNPtheroomandtheprepositioninareshownasformingaprepositionalphrase PP thatis thesymbolsP in andNP theroom arebothconnectedbybranchestothesymbolPP P174 37 BothPandNPareconnectedbybranchestothesamesymbol PP hence PandNPformasingleconstituent Thusfar then intree5 1thesequenceofwordstheroomisasingleconstituent anounphrase NP andthesequenceofwordsintheroomisasingleconstituent aprepositionalphrase PP 38 SpecifierXComplementHead XP TheXPrule Note ThephrasestructurerulescanbesummedupasXPruleshowninthediagram inwhichXstandsforN V AorP 39 ThegeneralPSruleschemaforphrasalcategorieswouldbeXP一XComp whereCompwhichstandsforcomplement couldbe forexample aPPoranNP andXstandsforalexicalcategory e g P N V WhenXequalsN thenXPisanNP whenXequalsP thenXPisaPP andsoon P216 40 X Theory XP Specifier X X X complement X head complement specifier XP Phraselevel X Xbartheory 41 XP Specifier X X X complement ThefirstrulestipulatesthatXPcategoriessuchasNPandVPconsistofanoptionalspecifier adeterminer aqualifier andsoforth andanX ThesecondrulestatesthatanX consistsofahead X andanycomplements 42 Coordinationrule Coordinationstructures thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand or etc 43 Thesetwoormorewordsorphrasesorclauseshaveequivalentsyntacticstatus eachoftheseparateconstituentscanstandfortheoriginalconstructionfunctionally 44 CoordinationofNPs NPthelady or NPthetiger CoordinationofVPs VPgotothelibrary and VPreadabook CoordinationofPPs PPdownthestairs and PPoutthedoor CoordinationofAPs APquiteexpensive and APverybeautiful CoordinationofSs SJohnlovesMary and SMarylovesJohntoo 45 Subordination Subordinationreferstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus onebeingdependentupontheother andusuallyaconstituentoftheother Thesubordinateconstituentsarewordswhichmodifythehead Consequently theycanbecalledmodifiers 46 twodogsHead Mybrother candrink wine HeadSwimminginthelake isfun Head Thepepperwas hotbeyondendurance Head 47 Subordinateclauses Clausescanbeusedassubordinateconstituents Therearethreebasictypesofsubordinateclauses complementclausesadjunct oradverbial clausesrelativeclauses 48 Johnbelieves thattheairplanewasinventedbyanIrishman complementclause Elizabethopenedherpresents beforeJohnfinishedhisdinner adverbialclause Thewoman thatIlove ismovingtothesouth relativeclause subordinateclause 49 Coordinationhasfourimportantproperties nolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesbeforetheconjunction acategoryatanylevelcanbecoordinated thecategoriesmustbeofthesametype thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined 50 Phraseelements Specifier 标志成分 Headcomplement 51 Specifiers Semantically specifiersmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead syntactically theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary Theyareattachedtothetoplevelofphrasestructures totheleftofthehead 52 Complements Complementsthemselvescanbeaphrase theyprovideinformationaboutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead e g astoryaboutasentimentalgirl 53 Therecanbenocomplement onecomplement ormorethanonecomplementinaphrase e g AppearwithoutanycomplementBreakanNPcomplementPutmorethanonecomplement 54 asentence likeconstructionmayalsofunctionasacomplementsuchasin Ibelievethatshewillwin Thatiscomplementizer 补语化成分 theclausesintroducedbycomplementizersarecomplementclause 55 Thewholeitalicizedpartintheabovesentenceiscalledacomplementphrase shortenedasCP 56 Modifiers 修饰成分 Modifiersspecifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads ModifiersinEnglishvaryintermsoftheirpositionwithrespecttothehead 57 PrecedestheheadE gaverycarefulgirlFollowstheheadE gopenwithcarePrecedesorfollowstheheadE greadcarefully carefullyread 58 Sentences theSrule Aboyfoundtheevidence 59 Sentences theSrule S NPVP S NP VP NP DetNVDetNAboyfoundtheevidence 60 S NPinflVPManylinguistsbelievethatsentences likeotherphrases alsohavetheirownheads Inflisanabstractcategoryinflection dubbed Infl astheirheads whichindicatesthesentence stenseandagreement InflP S NP VP Infl Sentences theSrule 61 Sentencehead Inflpositioncanbetakenbyanabstractcategoryencodedinaverbwhichindicatesthesentence stenseoranauxiliaryasshownbelow InflP S NP VP Infl Sentences theSrule 62 S NPinflVPManylinguistsbelievethatsentences likeotherphrases alsohavetheirownheads Inflisanabstractcategoryinflection dubbed Infl astheirheads whichindicatesthesentence stenseandagreement InflP S NP VP Infl Sentences theSrule 63 Inflrealizedbyatenselabel InflP S NP VP NP DetNInflVDetNAboyPstfoundtheevidence 64 Inflrealizedbyanauxiliary InflP S VP NP NP DetNInflVDetNAboywillfindtheevidence 65 Transformations 转换 Auxiliarymovement inversion DoinsertionDeepstructure surfacestructureWh movementMove andconstraintsontransformations 66 Thephrasestructurerulehasprovidedexplanationsofhowdifferentphrasesareformedbutitcannotentirelysatisfactorilydescribesomeotherlanguagephenomenasuchasyes noquestion wh questionandpassivevoice whichinvolveasyntacticmovement 67 AccordingtotheXPrule theauxiliaryistheheadofasentencewhichtakesaVPcategoryasitscomplementontherightandNP thesubject asitsspecifierontheleft However yes noquestionshaveanauxiliaryverbtotheleftofthesubject 68 a Johncanlift500pounds CanJohnlift500pounds Wewillnowengageinanapparentlysimpleexercise thatis tostateaspreciselyaswecanhowsuchEnglishquestionsarestructured P156 69 QuestionRuleI QR I Johncanlift500pounds 12345Toformaquestionfromadeclarativesentence placeword2atthebeginningofthesentence P157 70 QuestionRuleII Toformaquestionfromadeclarativesentence placethefirstverbatthebeginningofthesentence E g InJohncanlift500poundsthefirstverbiscan byplacingitatthebegingingofthesentence wederivethequestionCanJohnlift500pounds P158 71 QuestionRuleIII OR III a Toformaquestionfromadeclarativesentence placetheauxiliaryverbatthebeginningofthesentence P162 b 1fthereisnoauxiliaryverb butonlyamainverb placeanappropriateformoftheverbdoatthebeginningofthesentenceandmakeappropriatechangesinthemainverb P164 72 ForasentencesuchasMaryhasleft theauxiliaryverbishas byfrontingthis wederivethequestionformHasMaryleft AsentencesuchasYouknewthosewomenhasnoauxiliaryverb thus wemustinsertanappropriateforthoftheauxiliaryverbdo thus derivingthequestionformDidyouknowthosewomen P164 73 QuestionRuleIV QR IV QuestionRuleIIImakesreferencetoauxiliaryverb However whathappensifmorethanoneauxiliaryverboccursinthesentence P164 E g P164 a Johnwillhaveleft b AnnashouldhegoingtoChicago c Ga1enhasbeenstudyingveryhard 74 a Johnwillhaveleft b AnnashouldhegoingtoChicago c Ga1enhasbeenstudyingveryhard a WillJohnhaveleft b ShouldAnnabegoingtoChicago c HasGalenbeenstudyingveryhard 75 QuestionRuleIV QR IV Toformaquestionfromadeclarativesentence placethefirstauxiliaryverbatthebeginningofthesentence P165 76 Letuslookatothersentencescontainingmorethanoneauxiliaryverb Theexamplesin 33 constituteaclassofsentenceswehaveyettoexamine 33 a Thepeoplewhoarestandingintheroomwillleavesoon P166 77 QuestionRuleV QR V ThepeoplewhoarestandingintheroomwillSubjectAuxiliaryToformaquestionfromadeclarativesentence locatethefirstauxiliaryverbthatfollowsthesubjectofthesentenceandplaceitatthebeginningofthesentence P167 78 However itturnsoutthatevenQR Vmustbefurthermodified Aswehavealreadyseen theappropriateauxiliaryverbisnotalwaysmovedtothefrontofthesentence Recallthefollowingexamples P168 YesterdayJohncouldlift500pounds CouldyesterdayJohnlift500pounds Yesterday couldJohnlift500pounds 79 QuestionRuleVI QR VI Toformaquestionfromadeclarativesentence locatethefirstauxiliaryverbthatfollowsthesubjectofthesentenceandplaceitimmediatelytotheleftofthesubject P168 80 Forexample noticethatthelateststatementoftheQuestionRuleforcesustorefertolinearorder byreferringtothefirstauxiliaryverbafterthesubject tocategorizewordsintopartsofspeech byreferringtoauxiliaryverbs andtorefertoconstituentstructure byreferringtoastructuralgroupingcalledsubject P168 81 Subject InEnglish thesubjectofasentenceisoftensaidtobetheagent orthedoeroftheaction whiletheobjectisthepersonorthingacteduponbytheagent 82 Thisdefinitionseemstoworkforthesesentences MaryslappedJohn AdogbitBill 83 butisclearlywronginthefollowingexamples Johnwasbittenbyadog Johnunderwentmajorheartsurgery Inordertoaccountforthecaseofsubjectinpassivevoice wehavetwootherterms grammaticalsubject John and logicalsubject adog 84 Anothertraditionaldefinitionofthesubjectis whatthesentenceisabout i e topic Again thisseemstoworkformanysentences suchasBillisaverycraftyfellow butfailsinothers suchas Jackisprettyreliable but BillIdon ttrust AsforBill Iwouldn ttakehispromisesveryseriously 85 Allthreesentencesseemtobe about Bill thuswecouldsaythatBillisthetopicofallthreesentences Theabovesentencesmakeitclearthatthetopicisnotalwaysthegrammaticalsubject Whatcharacteristicsdosubjectshave subject 86 Wordorder Subjectordinarilyprecedestheverbinthestatement Sallycollectsstamps CollectsSallystamps 87 InEnglish then subjectsofsentenceshaveanumberofproperties P169 a Thesubjectofadeclarativesentencegenerallyprecedestheauxiliaryandmainverbinlinearorder 88 b Itformstheconstituentaroundwhichanauxiliaryisfrontedinformingaquestion c Itistheconstituentwithwhichapronouninatagagreesintermsofperson number andgender P170 89 InEnglish thesubjectofasentencecanbestructurallydefinedastheparticularNPinthestructuralconfigurationthatisimmediatelydominatedbySandprecedes Aux VP TheobjectofamainverbcanbestructurallydefinedastheNPinthestructuralconfigurationthatisimmediatelydominatedbyVP P181 90 Drawdiagramtreesforeachofthefollowingsentences Thepeopleintheroomfrightenedtheboy Theboyfrightenedthepeopleintheroom 91 P182 P183 92 Thesetwosentencesmeandifferentthings andthesedifferentmeaningsresultfromthefactthattheNPthatservesasthesubjectinonetreediagramsensesastheobjectintheothertreediagram P182 93 Theyes noquestionstructuresbeingconsideredarebuiltintwosteps 1 TheusualXPruleisusedtoformastructureinwhichtheauxiliaryoccupiesitsnormalpositioninInfl betweenthesubjectandtheVP 2 Informingayes noquestionrequiresatransformation aspecialtypeofrulethatcanmoveanelementfromonepositiontoanother 94 Auxiliarymovement inversion Inversion MoveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNP Inversion revised MoveInfltoC C CP S DetNInflVthetrainwillarrive NP 95 Thepositiontheauxiliaryoccupiesisthesameasthepositionthatacomplementizeroccupies ThisnaturallypromptsustoassumethatallSsoccurwithinlargerCPs whethertheyareembeddedornot Inyes noquestiontheInflismovedtotheCpositionwhichisemptyasshownbelow 96 Atransformationcandonomorethanchangeanelement sposition Itdoesnotchangethecategoriesofwordsanditcannoteliminateanypartofthestructuralconfigurationcreatedbythephrasestructurerules 97 Thus willretainsitsInfllabeleventhoughitismovedintotheCposition andthepositionthatitformerlyoccupiedremainsinthetreestructure Markedbythesymbole empty andcalledatrace itrecordsthefactthatthemovedelementcomesfromtheheadpositionwithinSasshownbelow 98 Auxiliarymovement inversion CP S C NP InflDetNInflVWillthetrainearrive 99 Fromtheabovetreediagram wecanseethattheauxiliarymovesfromtheheadInflpositioninInflPintotheheadCpositioninCP Suchtypeofinversionoperationinvolvingthemovementofawordfromtheheadpositioninonephraseintotheheadpositioninanotherisalsoknownasheadmovement 100 Doinsertion Doinsertion InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition CP C S NPInflVP Birdsfly CP CP C C S S InflNPInflVP NPInflVP Birdsdofly Dobirdsefly Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 101 AftertheauxiliarydoisinsertedintotheInflposition theinversiontransformationcanbemadebymovingtheinterrogativedointotheCposition 102 Deepstructure surfacestructure Considerthefollowingpairofsentences Johniseasytoplease Johniseagertoplease Structurallysimilarsentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures 103 Deepstructure surfacestructure Consideronemoresentence Flyingplanescanbedangerous ItcanmeaneitherthatifyouflyplanesyouareengagedinadangerousactivityorPlanesthatareflyingaredangerous 104 Deepstructure D structure formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead ssub categorizationproperties itcontainsalltheunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpretingthemeaningofthesentence Deepstructure surfacestructure 105 Intransformationalgenerativegrammar thedeepstructuremaybedefinedastheabstractrepres