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机械毕业设计英文翻译
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简介_英文文献翻译,机械毕业设计英文翻译
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安徽工业大学 毕业设计（论文）说明书 共 13 页 第 1 页 装 订 线 英文翻译 英语原文： . Introducing Classes The only remaining feature we need to understand before solving our bookstore problem is how to write a data structure to represent our transaction data. In C+ we define our own data structure by defining a class. The class mechanism is one of the most important features in C+. In fact, a primary focus of the design of C+ is to make it possible to define class types that behave as naturally as the built-in types themselves. The library types that weve seen already, such as istream and ostream, are all defined as classesthat is,they are not strictly speaking part of the language. Complete understanding of the class mechanism requires mastering a lot of information. Fortunately, it is possible to use a class that someone else has written without knowing how to define a class ourselves. In this section, well describe a simple class that we canuse in solving our bookstore problem. Well implement this class in the subsequent chapters as we learn more about types,expressions, statements, and functionsall of which are used in defining classes. To use a class we need to know three things: What is its name? Where is it defined? What operations does it support? For our bookstore problem, well assume that the class is named Sales_item and that it is defined in a header named Sales_item.h. The Sales_item Class The purpose of the Sales_item class is to store an ISBN and keep track of the number of copies sold, the revenue, and average sales price for that book. How these data are stored or computed is not our concern. To use a class, we need not know anything about how it is implemented. Instead, what we need to know is what operations the class provides. As weve seen, when we use library facilities such as IO, we must include the associated headers. Similarly, for our own classes, we must make the definitions associated with the class available to the compiler. We do so in much the same way. Typically, we put the class definition into a file. Any program that wants to use our class must include that file. Conventionally, class types are stored in a file with a name that, like the name of a program source file, has two parts: a file name and a file suffix. Usually the file name is the same as the class defined in the header. The suffix usually is .h, but some programmers use .H, .hpp, or .hxx. Compilers usually arent picky about header file names, but IDEs nts 安徽工业大学 毕业设计（论文）说明书 共 13 页 第 2 页 装 订 线 sometimes are. Well assume that our class is defined in a file named Sales_item.h. Operations on Sales_item Objects Every class defines a type. The type name is the same as the name of the class. Hence, our Sales_item class defines a type named Sales_item. As with the built-in types, we can define a variable of a class type. When we write Sales_item item we are saying that item is an object of type Sales_item. We often contract the phrase an object of type Sales_item toaSales_ item object or even more simply to a Sales_item. In addition to being able to define variables of type Sales_item, we can perform the following operations on Sales_item objects: Use the addition operator, +, to add two Sales_items, Use the input operator, to write a Sales_item object, Use the assignment operator, =, to assign one Sales_item object to another, Call the same_isbn function to determine if two Sales_items refer to the same book. Classes are central to most C+ programs: Classes let us define our own types that are customizedfor the problems we need to solve, resulting in applications that are easier to write and understand.Well-designed class types can be as easy to use as the built-in types. A class defines data and function members: The data members store the state associated with objectsof the class type, and the functions perform operations that give meaning to the data. Classeslet us separate implementation and interface. The interface specifies the operations that the classsupports. Only the implementor of the class need know or care about the details of the implementation. This separation reduces the bookkeeping aspects that make programming tedious anderror-prone. Class types often are referred to as abstract data types. An abstract data type treats the data(state) and operations on that state as a single unit. We can think abstractly about what the classd oes, rather than always having to be aware of how the class operates. Abstract data types arefundamental to both object-oriented and generic programming. Data abstraction is a programming (and design) technique that relies on the separation of interfaceand implementation. The class designer must worry about how a class is implemented, but programmersthat use the class need not know about these details. Instead, programmers who use a type need to know only the types interface; they can think abstractly about what the type does rather than concretely about how the type works. Encapsulation is a term that describes the technique of combining lower-level elements to forma new, higher-level entity. A function is one form of encapsulation: The detailed actions performedby the function are encapsulated in the larger entity that is the function itself. Encapsulated elements hide the details of their implementationwe may call nts 安徽工业大学 毕业设计（论文）说明书 共 13 页 第 3 页 装 订 线 a function but have no access to the statements that it executes. In the same way, a class is an encapsulated entity: It represents an aggregation of several members, and most (well-designed) class types hide the members that implement the type. If we think about the library vector type, it is an example of both data abstraction and encapsulation. It is abstract in that to use it, we think about its interfaceabout the operations that it can perform. It is encapsulated because we have no access to the details of how the type is representated nor to any of its implementation artifacts. An array, on the other hand, is similar in concept to a vector but is neither abstract nor encapsulated. We manipulate an array directly by accessing the memory in which the array is stored. Not all types need to be abstract. The library pair class is a good example of a useful, well-designed class that is concrete rather than abstract. A concrete class is a class that exposes, rather than hides, its implementation. Some classes, such as pair, really have no abstract interface. The pair type exists to bundle two data members into a single object. There is no need or advantage to hiding the data members. Hiding the members in a class like pair would only complicate the use of the type. Even so, such types often have member functions. In particular, it is a good idea for any class that has data members of built-in or compound type to define constructor(s) to initialize those members. The user of the class could initialize or assign to the data members but it is less error-prone for the class to do so. Programmers tend to think about the people who will run their applications as users. Applicationsare designed for and evolve in response to feedback from those who ultimately use the applications. Classes are thought of in a similar way: A class designer designs and implements a class for users of that class. In this case, the user is a programmer, not the ultimate user of the application. Authors of successful applications do a good job of understanding and implementing the needs ofthe applications users. Similarly, well-designed, useful classes are designed with a close attention to the needs of the users of the class. In another way, the division between class designer and class user reflects the division betweenusers of an application and the designers and implementors of the application. Users care only if the application meets their needs in a cost-effective way. Similarly, users of a class care only about its interface. Good class designers define a class interface that is intuitive and easy to use. Users care about the implementation only in so far as the implementation affects their use of the class. If the implementation is too slow or puts burdens on users of the class, then the users must care. In well-designed classes, only the class designer worries about the implementation. In simple applications, the user of a class and the designer of the class might be one nts 安徽工业大学 毕业设计（论文）说明书 共 13 页 第 4 页 装 订 线 and the same person. Even in such cases, it is useful to keep the roles distinct. When designing the interface to a class, the class designer should think about how easy it will be to use the class. When using the class, the designer shouldnt think about how the class works. When referring to a user, the context makes it clear which kind of user is meant. If we speak of user code or the user of the Sales_item class, we mean a programmer who is using a class in writing an application. If we speak of the user of the bookstore application, we mean the manager of the store who is running the application. Data abstraction and encapsulation provide two important advantages: 1.Class internals are protected from inadvertent user-level errors, which might corrupt the state of the object. 2.The class implementation may evolve over time in response to changing requirements or bug reports without requiring change in user-level code. By defining data members only in the private section of the class, the class author is free to make changes in the data. If the implementation changes, only the class code needs to be examined to see what affect the change may have. If data are public, then any function that directly accesses the data members of the old representation might be broken. It would be necessary to locate and rewrite all those portions of code that relied on the old pesentation before the program could be used again. Similarly, if the internal state of the class is private, then changes to the member data can happen in only a limited number of places. The data is protected from mistakes that users might introduce. If there is a bug that corrupts the objects state, the places to look for the bug are localized: When data are private, only a member function could be responsible for the error. The search for the mistake is limited, greatly easing the problems of maintenance and program correctness. If the data are private and if the interface to the member functions does not change, then user functions that manipulate class objects require no change. Because changing a class definition in a header file effectively changes the text of every source file that includes that header, code that uses a class must be recompiled when the class changes. Classes are the most fundamental feature in C+. Classes let us define new types that are tailored to our own applications, making our programs shorter and easier to modify. Data abstractionthe ability to define both data and function membersand encapsulationthe ability to protect class members from general accessare fundamental to classes. Member functions define the interface to the class. We encapsulate the class by making the data and functions used by the implementation of a class private. Classes may define constructors, which are special member functions that control how nts 安徽工业大学 毕业设计（论文）说明书 共 13 页 第 5 页 装 订 线 objects of the class are initialized. Constructors may be verloaded. Every constructor should initialize every data member. Constructors should use a constructor initializer list to initialize the data members. Initializer lists are lists of namevalue pairs where the name is a member and the value is an initial value for that member. Classes may grant access to their nonpublic members to other classes or functions. A class grants access by making the class or function a friend. Classes may also define mutable or static members. A mutable member is a data member that is never const; its value may be changed inside a const member function. A static member can be either function or data; static members exist independently of the objects of the class type. Copy Control Each type, whether a built-in or class type, defines the meaning of a (possibly empty) set of operations on objects of that type. We can add two int values, run size on a vector, and so on. These operations define what can be done with objects of the given type. Each type also defines what happens when objects of the type are created. Initialization of objects of class type is defined by constructors. Types also control what happens when objects of the type are copied, assigned, or destroyed. Classes control these actions through special member functions: the copy constructor, the assignment operator, and the destructor. This chapter covers these operations. When we define a new type, we specifyexplicitly or implicitlywhat happens when objects of that type are copied, assigned, and destroyed. We do so by defining special members: the copy constructor, the assignment operator, and the destructor. If we do not explicitly define the copy constructor or the assignment operator, the compiler will (usually) define them for us. The copy constructor is a special constructor that has a single parameter that is a (usually const) reference to the class type. The copy constructor is used explicitly when we define a new object and initialize it from an object of the same type. It is used implicitly when we pass or return objects of that type to or from functions. Collectively, the copy constructor, assignment operator, and destructor are referred to as copy control. The compiler automatically implements these operations, but the class may define its own versions. Copy control is an essential part of defining any C+ class. Programmers new to C+ are often confused by having to define what happens when objects are copied, assigned, or destroyed. This confusion is compounded because if we do not explicitly define these operations, the compiler defines them for usalthough they might not behave as we intend. Often the compiler-synthesized copy-control functions are finethey do exactly the nts 安徽工业大学 毕业设计（论文）说明书 共 13 页 第 6 页 装 订 线 work that needs to be done. But for some classes, relying on the default definitions leads to disaster. Frequently,the most difficult part of implementing the copy-control operations is recognizing when we need to override the default versions. One especially common case that requires the class to define its own the copy-control members is if the class has a pointer member. The Copy Constructor The constructor that takes a single parameter that is a (usually const) reference to an object of the class type itself is called the copy constructor. Like the default constructor, the copy constructor can be implicitly invoked by the compiler. The copy constructor is used to: 1.Explicitly or implicitly initialize one object from another of the same type; 2.Copy an object to pass it as an argument to a function; 3.Copy an object to return it from a function; 4.Initialize the elements in a sequential container; 5.Initialize elements in an array from a list of element initializers. Forms of Object Definition Recall that C+ supports two forms of initialization (Section 2.3.3, p. 48): direct and copy.Copy-initialization uses the = symbol, and direct-initialization places the initializer in parentheses. The copy and direct forms of initialization, when applied to objects of class type, are subtly different. Direct-initialization directly invokes the constructor matched by the arguments. Copy-initialization always involves the copy constructor. Copy-initialization first uses the indicated constructor to create a temporary object (Section 7.3.2, p. 247). It then uses the copy constructor to copy that temporary into the one we are creating: string null_book = 9-999-99999-9; / copy-initialization string dots(10, .); / direct-initialization string empty_copy = string(); / copy-initialization string empty_direct; / direct-initialization For objects of class type, copy-initialization can be used only when specifying a single argument or when we explicitly build a temporary object to copy. When dots is created, the string constructor that takes a count and a character is called and directly initializes the members in dots. To create null_book, the compiler first creates a temporary by invoking the string constructor that takes a C-style character string parameter. The compiler then uses the string copy constructor to initialize null_book as a copy of that temporary. The initialization of empty_copy and empty_direct both call the string default constructor. In the first case, the default constructor creates a temporary object, which is nts 安徽工业大学 毕业设计（论文）说明书 共 13 页 第 7 页 装 订 线 then used by the copy constructor to initialize empty_copy. In the second case, the default constructor is run directly on empty_direct. The copy form of initialization is primarily sup
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