语言学教程Chaer 8 Language in Useppt课件.ppt

ChapterEightLanguageinUse 1 2 1 DefinitionofPragmatics Thestudyoflanguageinuse Thestudyofmeaningincontext Thestudyofspeakers meaning utterancemeaning contextualmeaning 3 Speaker smeaning Afatheristryingtogethis3 year olddaughtertostopliftingupherdresstodisplayhernewunderweartotheassemble Father Wedon tDOthat Daughter IKNOW Daddy Youdon tWEARdresses 4 UtteranceMeaningvs SentenceMeaningUtterancevs SentenceSentence abstractunitsofthelanguagesystem Utterance unitsoflanguageinuse 5 Sentencemeaning WhatdoesXmean Utterancemeaning WhatdoyoumeanbyX Dog Mybagisheavy Janet Donkeys DavidCopperfield 6 It scoldinhere 7 ContextualMeaning meaningincontextThemeaningofthesentencedependsonwhothespeakeris whotheheareris whenandwhereitisused ItwasahotChristmasdaysowewentdowntothebeachintheafternoonandhadagoodtimeswimmingandsurfing 8 Semanticmeaning themoreconstant inherentsideofmeaningPragmaticmeaning themoreindeterminate themorecloselyrelatedtocontext 9 1 A Areyougoingtotheseminar B It sonlinguistics 2 A Wouldyoulikesomecoffee B Coffeewouldkeepmeawake 3 A 我带的钱不够 今天买不了 B 那就下次再买吧 10 2 SpeechActTheory JohnAustin 1911 1960 HowtoDoThingswithWords 1962 speechacts actionsperformedviautterances 11 Constativesvs performativesConstatives utteranceswhichroughlyservestostateafact reportthatsomethingisthecase ordescribewhatsomethingis eg IgototheparkeverySunday IteachEnglish 12 Performatives utteranceswhichareusedtoperformacts donotdescribeorreportanythingatall theutteringofthesentenceisthedoingofanaction theycannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse Performativeverbs name bet etc 13 Ido InamethisshipQueenElizabeth Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother Ipromisetofinishitintime Iapologize Ideclarethemeetingopen Iwarnyouthatthebullwillcharge 14 Felicityconditions A i Theremustbearelevantconventionalprocedure ii therelevantparticipantsandcircumstancesmustbeappropriate B Theproceduremustbeexecutedcorrectlyandcompletely C Veryoften therelevantpeoplemusthavetherequisitethoughts feelingsandintentions andmustfollowitupwithactionsasspecified 15 ProblemswithfelicityconditionsNostrictprocedureforpromising Ipromise Igivemywordforit Ibequeathmywatchtomybrother TorF 16 Minister addressingthegroom Groom sName doyoutake Bride sName foryourlawfulweddedwife tolivetogetherafterGod sordinance intheholyestateofmatrimony Willyoulove honor comfort andcherishherfromthisdayforward forsakingallothers keepingonlyuntoherforaslongasyoubothshalllive Groom Ido 17 FeaturesofperformativesFirstpersonsingularSpeechactverbs performativeverbs ThepresenttenseIndicativemoodActivevoice 18 Ipromisetobethere I llbethere IadmitIwaswrong Iwasfoolish Iwarnyou thisgunisloaded Thisgunisloaded Ithankyou I mverygrateful Iapologize I msorry Iorderyoutositdown Youmustsitdown 19 Conclusion Thedistinctionbetweenconstatives performativescannotbemaintained Allsentencescanbeusedtodothings 20 3 IllocutionaryActTheory JohnSearle 1932 Speechactscanbeanalyzedon3levels Alocutionaryact theactofsayingsomethinginthefullsenseof say 21 Anillocutionaryact anactperformedinsayingsomething Tosaysthistodosth InsayingX IwasdoingY Insaying Iwillcometomorrow Iwasmakingapromise Illocutionaryforce 22 Aperlocutionaryact theactpreformedbyorasaresultofsaying theeffectsonthehearer BysayingXanddoingY IdidZ Bysaying Iwillcometomorrow andmakingapromise Ireassuremyfriends Shoother 23 4 ConversationalImplicature Peopledonotusuallysaythingsdirectlybuttendtoimplythem HerbertPaulGrice 1913 1988 WilliamJameslecturesatHarvardin1967LogicandConversationin1975 24 Grice stheoryLogicandConversationisanattemptatexplaininghowahearergetsfromwhatissaidtowhatismeant fromthelevelofexpressedmeaningtothelevelofimpliedmeaning TheCooperativePrinciple CP 25 Makeyourcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged 26 MaximofQuality Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse Donotsaysomethingifyoulackadequateevidence MaximofQuantity Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanrequired 27 MaximofRelation Berelative MaximofManner Beperspicuous Avoidobscurityofexpression Avoidambiguity Bebrief Beorderly 28 CPismeanttodescribewhatactuallyhappensinconversation PeopletendtobecooperativeandobeyCPincommunication 29 However CPisoftenviolated SinceCPisregulative CPcanbeviolated ViolationofCPanditsmaximsleadstoconversationalimplicature 30 Violationofthemaxims Quantity Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired A 昨天上街买了些什么 B 就买了些东西 Idon twanttotellyouwhatIbought 31 DearSir Mr X scommandofEnglishisexcellent andhisattendanceattutorialshasbeenregular Yours Mr Xisnotsuitableforthejob 32 2 Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired Aunt HowdidJimmydohishistoryexam Mother Oh notatallwell Teachersaskedhimthingsthathappenedbeforethepoorboywasborn Hersonshouldnotbeblamed 33 A Yourkidbrokethewindow B Boysareboys Wariswar 34 Violationofthemaxims Quality 1 Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse Youarethecreaminmycoffee Xrunsasfastasadeer Heismadeofiron 35 2 Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence A BeirutisinPeru isn tit B AndRomeisinRomania Isuppose It sridiculous 36 Violationofthemaxims Relation Berelevant A Prof Wangisanoldbag B Niceweatherforthetimeofyear Idon twanttotalkaboutProf Wang 37 萍 爸爸 不过四凤同鲁贵在家里都很好 很忠诚的 朴 恩 我很累了 我预备到书房歇一下 你叫他们送一碗浓一点的普洱茶来 38 Violationofthemaxims Manner 1 AvoidobscurityofexpressionA Let sgetthekidssomething B Ok butIvetoC H O C O L A T E Don tgivethemchocolate 39 2 AvoidambiguityA Nameandtitle please B JohnSmith AssociateEditorandprofessor Cf 买一赠一 40 3 BebriefA Didyougetmyassignment B Ireceivedtwopagesclippedtogetherandcoveredwithrowsofblacksquiggles notsatisfied 41 Characteristicsofimplicature Calculability hearersworkoutimplicaturebasedonliteralmeaning CPanditsmaxims context etc 42 Cancellability defeasibility Ifthelinguisticorsituationalcontextschanges theimplicaturewillalsochange A Doyouwantsomecoffee B Coffeewouldkeepmeawake Idonotlikecoffee B Coffeewouldkeepmeawake Iwanttostayup 43 Non detachability implicatureisattachedtothesemanticcontentofwhatissaid nottothelinguisticform implicaturesdonotvanishifthewordsofanutterancearechangedforsynonyms A Shallwegothecinematonight B There llbeanexamtomorrow I lltakeanexamtomorrow Isn tthereanexamtomorrow 44 Non conventionality implicatureisdifferentfromitsconventionalmeaningofwords Itiscontext dependent Itvarieswithcontext A1 下午踢球去吧 A2 老王住院了 B 上午还在换草皮 A3 足球场安装了一个新门柱 45 5 PolitenessPrinciple Grice sCPdoesnotexplainwhyspeakersoftenviolateCP GeoffreyLeech ProfessorofLinguisticsandModernEnglishLanguageatLancasterUniversityfrom1974to2002 PrinciplesofPragmatics 1983 putsforwardPPtosaveCP 46 A We llmissBillandMary won twe B Well we llallmissBill violationofquantitymaxim 47 Self 自身 referstothespeaker Other 他人 referstotheaddresseeorathirdperson presentornot Benefit 惠 Cost 损 Generallyspeaking ifthereisbenefit theremustbecost 48 Forsomeactssuchasgivinganinvitation apieceofadviceandanofferareconsideredpolite natured forotherisalwaysonthebeneficialside Forotheractslikearequest anorderandademandareconsideredimpolite natured forotherisalwaysonthecostside 49 TactMaximGenerosityMaximApprobationMaximModestyMaximAgreementMaximSympathyMaxim 50 TactMaxima Minimizecosttootherb Maximizebenefittoother GenerosityMaxima Minimizebenefittoselfb Maximizecosttoself 51 把车借给我用两天 洗一洗这些衣服 把铅笔递一下 再来一杯啤酒 周末好好休息 把房间打扫一下 我想知道你是否有时间打扫一下房间 52 ApprobationMaxima Minimizedispraiseofotherb MaximizepraiseofotherModestyMaxima Minimizepraiseofselfb Maximizedispraiseofself 53 A 我的西装怎么样 B 难看死拉 怎么说呢 不过我觉得颜色深了点 A 今天真倒霉 B 我说的吧 自找的 过去就算了 别再想拉 54 AgreementMaxima Minimizedisagreementbetweenselfandotherb MaximizeagreementbetweenselfandotherSympathyMaxima Minimizeantipathybetweenselfandotherb Maximizesympathybetweenselfandother 55 A 我提议大家明天到江边烧烤 B 我没意见 可以 但风太大啊 我不去 没意思 A 我的腿不方便 B 我知道 上次摔断了 那小心点 我来吧 56 6 Post GriceanDevelopments RelevanceTheory DanSperber JeanNicodInstitute DeirdreWilson UCL TheQ andR principles LaurenceHorn Yale TheQ I andM principles StephenLevinson MaxPlanck 57 6 1RelevanceTheory 1986 1995AllGriceanmaxims inc theCPitself shouldbereducedtoasingleprincipleofrelevance Everyactofostensivecommunicationcommunicatesthepresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevance 58 Ostensivecommunication TheyagreewithGricethatcommunicationisnotsimplyamatterofencodinganddecoding italsoinvolvesinference Buttheymaintainthatinferencehasonlytodowiththehearer Fromthespeaker sside communicationshouldbeseenasanactofmakingclearone sintentiontoexpresssomething Thisacttheycallostensiveact Inotherwords acompletecharacterizationofcommunicationisthatitisostensive inferential 59 Presumptionofoptimalrelevance Initialversion Anassumptionisrelevantinacontextifandonlyifithassomecontextualeffectinthatcontext Butwhatexactlyiscontext AllthebackgroundinfoSometimessomeinfomustbeexcluded chosen relevanceGenerallytheassumptionpeopleareprocessingisrelevant 60 Revisedversion Anassumptionisrelevanttoanindividualatagiventimeifandonlyifitisrelevantinoneormoreofthecontextsavailabletothatindividualatthattime Relevanceisnotjustapropertyofassumptionsinthemind butalsoapropertyofphenomena stimuli e g utterances intheenvironmentwhichleadtotheconstructionofassumptions 61 Acommunicatorcannotdirectlypresentanaudiencewithanassumption Allaspeaker orawriter candoistopresentastimulusintheformofasound orawrittenmark Thepresentationofthisstimuluschangesthecognitiveenvironmentoftheaudience makingcertainfactsmanifest ormoremanifest Asaresult theaudiencecanmentallyrepresentthesefactsasstrongorstrongerassumptions andevenusethemtoderivefurtherassumptions 62 Finalversion Aphenomenonisrelevanttoanindividualifandonlyifoneormoreoftheassumptionsitmakesmanifestisrelevanttohim Thus bypresumptionofoptimalrelevanceismeant Thesetofassumptions I whichthecommunicatorintendstomakemanifesttotheaddresseeisrelevantenoughtomakeitworththeaddressee swhiletoprocesstheostensivestimulus Theostensivestimulusisthemostrelevantonethecommunicatorcouldhaveusedtocommunicate I 63 Everyutterancecomeswithapresumptionofthebestbalanceofeffortagainsteffect Ontheonehand theeffectsachievablewillneverbelessthanisneededtomakeitworthprocessing Ontheotherhand theeffortrequiredwillneverbemorethanisneededtoachievetheseeffects Incomparisontotheeffectsachieved theeffortneededisalwaysthesmallest Thisamountstosaying ofalltheinterpretationsofthestimuluswhichconfirmthepresumption itisthefirstinterpretationtooccurtotheaddresseethatistheonethecommunicatorintendedtoconvey 64 Georgehasabigcat Georgehasatiger alion ajaguar etc Georgehasatiger Georgehasatigeroralion I mnotsurewhich Georgehasafelid 65 Seconded 1995 tworelevance basedprinciplesCommunicativePrincipleofRelevance Everyactofostensivecommunicationcommunicatesthepresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevance CognitivePrincipleofRelevance Humancognitiontendstobegearedtothemaximisationofrelevance 66 Thepresumptionofoptimalrelevanceisrevisedasfollows Theostensivestimulusisrelevantenoughforittobeworththeaddressee sefforttoprocessit Theostensivestimulusisthemostrelevantonecompatiblewiththecommunicator sabilitiesandpreferences 67 6 2TheQ andR principles LaurenceHorn 1984 TowardaNewTaxonomyforPragmaticInterface Q BasedandR BasedImplicature LaurenceHorn 1988 PragmaticTheory 68 TheQ principle ThefirstofGrice smaximofQuantity Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange TheR principle TheMaximofRelationButthenewprinciplesaremoreextensivethantheGriceanmaxims 69 TheQ principle Hearer based MAKEYOURCONTRIBUTIONSUFFICIENT cf Quantity1 SAYASMUCHASYOUCAN givenR TheR principle Speaker based MAKEYOURCONTRIBUTIONNECESSARY cf Relation Quantity2 Manner SAYNOMORETHANYOUMUST givenQ 70 Thehearer basedQ principleisasufficiencyconditioninthesensethatinformationprovidedisthemostthespeakerisableto Forexample a belowimplicates b a Someofmyfriendsarelinguists b Notallofmyfriendsarelinguists 71 TheR principleencouragesthehearertoinferthatmoreismeant Typicalexamplesarespeechactslike Canyoupassthesalt 72 TheQ principleisconcernedwiththecontent Thespeakerwhofollowsthisprinciplesuppliesthesufficientinformation TheR principleisconcernedwiththeform Thespeakerwhoemploysthisprincipleusestheminimalform sothatthehearerisentitledtoinferthatthespeakermeansmorethanhesays 73 Example negationusuallymeans lessthan Hedidn teatthreecarrots Heatelessthanthreecarrots Metalinguisticnegation Hedidn teatTHREEcarrots HeateFOURofthem Youdidn teatSOMEofthecookies youateALLofthem Itisn tPOSSIBLEshe llwin it sCERTAINshewill 74 Ididn tbreakafingeryesterday Ibrokeafinger butitwasn toneofmine Q based Ibrokeafingeryesterday Ibrokeafingerofmineyesterday R based 75 Johnhadadrink Thesecretarysmiled Johnhadanalcoholicdrink Thefemalesecretarysmiled Johndidn thaveadrink thatwasaShirleyTemple Mysecretarydidn tsmile Ihaveamalesecretary 76 Hornarguesthatthisexceptionismoreapparentthanreal Bothspeakers intuitionandlexicographers practicesuggestthattheimplicatureassociatedwithdrink i e alcoholicdrink hasbecomepartoftheconventionalmeaning whilethatofsecretary i e femalesecretary hasnot Inotherwords theinterpretationofdrinkinthesenseof alcoholicdrink isnolongeranimplicature 77 Synonymavoidance Therearemanytermsformedwiththeadjectivepaleandcolourwords suchas palegreen paleblue paleyellow butpaleredsoundsodd Thisodditymaybeattributedtotheexistenceofthewordpink Unlessonewantstodesignateacolourwhichispalerthanred butnotyetaspaleaspink thetermpaleredwouldnotbeused Becauseoftheexistenceofpinktheuseofpaleredislimitedinawaythatpaleblueandpalegreenarenot 78 BlackBartkilledthesheriff BlackBartcausedthesherifftodie Leestoppedthecar Leegotthecartostop 79 HornobservesthattheQ basedandR basedprinciplesoftendirectlycollide AspeakerobeyingonlyQwouldtendtosayeverythingsheknowsontheoff chancethatitmightproveinformative whileaspeakerobeyingonlyRwouldprobably tobeonthesafeside notopenhermouth Infact manyofthemaximclashesGriceandothershavediscusseddoinvolveQuantity1vs Relation 80 But itisperhapsintheresolutionoftheconflictbetweenthemthattheyplaytheirmajorrole Hesuggeststhisresolutioncomesfromadivisionofpragmaticlabourasfollows Theuseofamarked relativelycomplexand orprolix expressionwhenacorrespondingunmarked simpler less effortful alternateexpressionisavailabletendstobeinterpretedasconveyingamarkedmessage onewhichtheunmarkedalternativewouldnotorcouldnothaveconveyed 81 6 3TheQ I andM principles StephenLevinson 1987 PragmaticsandtheGrammarofAnaphor APartialPragmaticReductionofBindingandControlPhenomenaStephenLevinson 1989 ReviewofRelevancebySperberandWilson 82 TheQ I andM principlesareGrice stwomaximsofQuantityandamaximofMannerreinterpretedneo classically ThemaximsofQuality asisthecaseinHorn stheory arekeptintact LevinsondoesnotagreewiththetreatmentinbothSperber Wilson sandHorn saccountstosubsumethesecondmaximofQuantityunderaprincipleofrelevance orrelation 83 Inhisview themaximsofQuantityhavetodowiththequantityofinformation whilerelevanceisameasureoftimelyhelpfulnesswithrespecttointeractionalgoals andislargelyaboutthesatisfactionofothers goalsininteraction andthesatisfactionoftopicalandsequencingconstraintsindiscourse asintheexpectationthatananswerwillfollowaquestion 84 Itisnot atleastnotprimarily aboutinformation SoherenamesthesecondmaximofQuantitythePrincipleofInformativeness orI Principle andthefirstmaximofQuantitythePrincipleofQuantity orQ Principle 85 TheM principle LevinsonmixesthepresentationofhisownideaswiththecriticismofHorn sprinciples HeaccusesHornoffailingtodrawadistinctionbetweentwokindsofminimization asemanticminimizationandanexpressionminimization 86 Thesemantic orcontent minimizationisequivalenttosemanticgenerality themoregeneraltermsaremoreminimalinmeaning havingmorerestrictedconnotation incontrasttothemoreextendeddenotation andthelessgeneral themorespecific arelessminimal moremaximal Forexample shipismoregeneralthanferry flowerthanrose animalthantiger Thechoiceoftheformerinsteadofthelatterisaprocesstowardminimization 87 Theexpression orform minimizationissomemeasureofsurfacelengthandcomplexity Itisconcernedwiththephoneticandmorphologicalmake upofaterm Thenormallystressedtermsaremoreminimalthantheirabnormallystressedcounterparts Theshortertermsaremoreminimalthanlongerones providedtheyaresynonymous suchasfrequentandnotinfrequent tostopacarandtocauseacartostop 88 OnlythesemanticminimizationhastodowiththeI principle Theexpressionminimization incontrast isthedomainoftheprincipleofmanner asitconcernstheformofalinguisticunit thewaytoexpresssomethingratherthanwhatisexpressed orhowmuchisexpressed 89 Recently Levinsoncallshisprinciples heuristics Levinson 2000 PresumptiveMeaning MIT Heuristic1 Whatisn tsaid isn t Heuristic2 Whatissimplydescribedisstereotypicallyexemplified Heuristic3 What ssaidinanabnormalway isn tnormal orMarkedmessageindicatesmarkedsituation 90 Heuristic1 Q Heuristic moreorlesstransparentlyrelatedtoGrice sfirstMaximofQuantity Responsiblefortwotypesofimplicatures scalarimplicaturesandclausalimplicaturesSomeoftheboyscame scalar Notalltheboyscame Ifeatingeggsisbadforyou youshouldgiveupomelets clausal Eatingeggsmaybebadforyou oritmaynotbebadforyou 91 ScalarimplicaturesaretheimplicatureswhichinvolvetheQ principleinHorn ssense Wordslikeallandsomeformascalarcontrastset inwhichallisthemoreinformative orstronger term andsomethelessinformative orweaker term 92 Clausalimplicaturesinvolvetheuseofdifferentclauses Sinceeatingeggsisbadforyou youshouldgiveupomelets Eatingeggsmaybebadforyou oritmaynotbebadforyou 93 Twoclausalalternates Ifeatingeggsisbadforyou youshouldgiveupomelets Sinceeatingeggsisbadforyou youshouldgiveupomelets whichmaybeexpressedasTheclauseusingsinceisthemoreinformative orstronger alternate andtheoneusingifthelessinformative orweaker alternate 94 Heuristic2 I H