The_Pragmatic_Analysis_of_English_Euphemism英语委婉语的语用分析.doc

硕 士 学 位 论 文题 目 英语委婉语的语用分析 英 文 The Pragmatic Analysis of English Euphemism 专 业 外国语言学及应用语言学 研究方向 模糊语言学 AbstractEnglish euphemism is a common linguistic as well as cultural phenomenon in daily life. English euphemism emerges in the works by such literary giants as Shakespeare as well as in the statements made by the populace. It is not only euphemistic words, expressions, sentences, discourses, but also a way of expression by the application of language to communication. In most cases, English euphemism can cover unpleasant, disgusting, terrifying realities and can also hide embarrassing or face-threatening things. Therefore, we can say it is a sort of “lubricating oil” in language communication, which oils the human relationship and helps to save face of communicators.English euphemism holds great interest for both eastern and western scholars and some exciting progress has been made both at home and abroad, but the scope of the previous study has been so far mainly restricted to the level of lexicon. Few people have studied English euphemism in specific context. The task of pragmatics is to put utterances into certain context and to discover how language is used in different context. The originality of this thesis lies in the study of English euphemism from the perspective of pragmatics. It analyzes the relationship between English euphemism and the Cooperative Principle, the relationship between English euphemism and the Politeness Principle, and concludes that English euphemism results from the intentional violation of the maxims of the CP and the observation of the PP. And this thesis also discusses the phenomenon of pragmatic vagueness in the formation and functions of English euphemism. It shows that most English euphemisms are vague in nature and the pragmatic vagueness of English euphemism is very important in the realization of the pragmatic functions of English euphemism.English euphemism has five pragmatic functions. They are the function of avoiding taboo, the function of being polite, the function of disguising, the function of being humorous and the function of being modest. Every English euphemism can fulfill one or more of such pragmatic functions in every specific context. The maxims of Cooperative Principle require people to speak sincerely, relevantly, and clearly while providing sufficient information, but they are not always strictly followed. People may violate them for a variety of reasons. According to Grice, some violations can generate “conversational implicatures” which allow the speaker to convey meaning beyond what is literally expressed. English euphemism，as a deviation from the conventional use of language, achieves its effects in communication by flouting one or more maxims of the CP. Especially when non-conventional euphemistic sentences and discourses are involved in conversations or communication, the conversational implicatures have to be worked out. Politeness Principle is supposed to collaborate with and even rescue the CP and its maxims. As far as English euphemisms are concerned, by the maxims of the CP, we can confirm that they are either less or more informative than necessary, or are not true to facts, or are seemingly irrelevant to their referents, or are subject to ambiguity. What is it that is responsible for the deliberate deviation then? This is beyond what the CP can account for while the PP can. By the PP, behind the deviation lies peoples desire to be polite. In some sense, we can say euphemism results from the intentional violation of the maxims of the CP and the observation of the PP. People usually use imperative sentences when they ask for help or give orders, but the theory of indirect speech act requires them to use questions or statements. In this way, the listener can judge the speakers real intention according to the context. By avoiding making direct requests and giving orders, the purpose of euphemizing is achieved. Therefore, we can say, euphemism is in fact a kind of indirect speech act and the indirect speech act is in fact a device of euphemizing. The highest standard of language communication is language appropriateness. The speaker cannot threaten the face of the listener, or the speakers own face will be threatened. To save face of the speaker and the hearer, pragmatic strategies must be used in language communication. One effective way of saving face is to use euphemism. Although linguistic context plays an important role in the use of English euphemism, extra-linguistic context such as age, gender, status, profession and region are also very important in the use of English euphemism. Among the various definitions of euphemism, many scholars use the word “vague”, which indicates that there is an inborn relationship between language vagueness and English euphemism. In our daily life, to avoid embarrassment, some things or behaviors cannot be expressed directly. To express them requires the use of language vagueness to achieve the purpose of euphemizing. So the pragmatic vagueness of English euphemism plays an important role in the realization of the pragmatic functions of English euphemism. Today, cross-cultural communication is very common, so grasping some knowledge about English euphemism can help us reduce pragmatic failures and increase mutual understanding. Key Words: English Euphemism; Formation; Pragmatics; Context; the Cooperative Principle; the Politeness Principle; Pragmatic Vagueness 摘 要英语委婉语是日常生活中一种普遍的语言和文化现象，它不仅出现在像莎士比亚这样伟大的作家的作品中，还存在于普通大众的话语中。英语委婉语不仅仅是一些委婉的话语、表达、句子及语篇，它还是一种使用语言进行交流的表达方式。在大多数情况下，英语委婉语能够掩饰一些今人不快的和恐怖的现实，它还能掩饰一些今人尴尬和威胁面子的事物。因此，委婉语是语言交流中的一种“润滑剂”，起着润滑人类关系和帮助保留交流者面子的作用。英语委婉语引起了东西方学者的广泛关注,并且在国内外对它的研究已取得了激动人心的进步,但是以前研究的范围主要局限于词汇层面，很少有人把它放在语境中来研究。语用学的任务就是把特定的话语置于特定的语境中,来探索在不同语境下如何运用语言。本文拟以语用研究的一些基本理论为指导来分析委婉语，探求语用规律与委婉语的关系。它的创新点在于分析了英语委婉语和合作原则的关系、英语委婉语和礼貌原则的关系, 发现英语委婉语以违反合作原则的各准则为代价来遵守礼貌原则。本文还讨论了英语委婉语使用过程中的语用模糊现象, 发现大多数英语委婉语在本质上都是模糊的, 而且英语委婉语的语用模糊性对实现其语用功能起着非常重要的作用。英语委婉语在语言交流中有避讳、礼貌、掩饰、幽默和谦虚这五种语用功能，每个委婉语在具体的语境中会实现一种或几种这要的语用功能。合作原则要求人们在交流中遵守真实、充分、关联、清楚等原则，但人们往往并不严格遵守这些原则。由于各种各样的原因，人们经常违反它们而导致了会话含义的产生。英语委婉语正是通过对合作原则的一些准则的违反而取得其交流效果的。礼貌原则解释了说话人有意违反合作原则来含蓄地表达自己的真意，是出于礼貌的考虑。使用委婉语的一个根本的目的，就是使对方感到和善不强迫他人，所以在交际中使用委婉语正是遵守了礼貌原则。从某种意义上说，英语委婉语的运用就是对合作原则各准则的违反和对礼貌原则的遵守。请别人帮忙或下命令给别人，一般要使用祈使句，但间接言语行为要求人们换用一个问句或陈述句，由听话者根据语境来领会说话者的意图，从而避免直接请求或命令而达到委婉的目的，而委婉语又具有含蓄和间接的特点，所以可以说，委婉语实质上是一种间接言语行为，间接言语行为实质上也是一种委婉手段。言语交际的最高标准是得体，说话者不能伤及听话者的面子，否则自己的面子也定受到威胁。为了保护他人和自己的面子，言语交际中必须要讲究语用策略，使用委婉语是保留交际双方面子行之有效的方法之一。虽然委婉语的选择和使用对语言语境有很大的依赖，但非语言语境像交际双方的年龄、性别、职业、地位、地域等也对委婉语的选择和使用起着很大的制约作用。在委婉语的多种定义中，都用了“模糊”一词，说明语言模糊性和委婉语有着天生的关系。在现实生活中，有些事物或行为不宜直率的、确切地表达出来，否则将会导致不快。这时就需要借助语言的模糊性，运用委婉语来改变说法，避免直言造成的不快。因此可以说，委婉语的语用模糊性对实现其语用功能起着很重要的作用。在跨文化交际日益频繁的当今世界，了解和掌握英语委婉语的一些知识可以帮助人们减少语用失误、减少文化冲突带来的摩擦，从而增进相互了解。关键词：英语委婉语；构成；语用学；语境；合作原则；礼貌原则；语用模糊VIIContentsAcknowledgements.Abstract in English.Abstract in ChineseChapter1 Introduction.1Chapter 2 Some Fundamental Knowledge about English Euphemism.42.1 Definition of English Euphemism 42.2 Classification of English Euphemism62.3 Formation of English Euphemism 82.3.1 Phonetic and Orthographical Means. 82.3.2 Lexical Means.102.3.3 Rhetorical Means.11 2.3.4 Grammatical Means.132.3.5 Non-linguistic Means. 162.4 Principles in Forming and Developing English Euphemism162.4.1 Principles in Forming English Euphemism.172.4.2 Principles in Developing English Euphemism.18Chapter 3 The Pragmatic Analysis of English Euphemism. .203.1 Brief Introduction to Pragmatics. .203.2 The Pragmatic Functions of English Euphemism. .213.2.1 The Function of Avoiding Taboo.213.2.2 The Function of Being Polite223.2.3 The Function of Disguising.233.2.4 The Function of Being Humorous and Ironic. .243.2.5 The Function of Being Modest.243.3 Some Pragmatic Theories and English Euphemism.243.3.1 Cooperative Principle and English Euphemism253.3.2 Politeness Principle and English Euphemism283.3.3 Indirect Speech Act Theory and English Euphemism.303.3.4 Face Theory and English Euphemism.323.4 Extra-linguistic Context and English Euphemism.333.4.1 English Euphemism and Participants. .333.4.2 English Euphemism and the Speakers Attitudes and Purposes353.4.3 English Euphemism and Situation 363.4.4 English Euphemism and Regional Variation 373.5 The Pragmatic Vagueness of English Euphemism.373.5.1 Language Vagueness.383.5.2 Language Vagueness in Formation and Function of English Euphemism.41 Chapter 4 Conclusion and Implication. 474.1 Conclusion. .474.2 Implication in Cross-cultural Communication. .47Bibliography. .50List of the published papers of the author.53Chapter 1 IntroductionChapter 1 Introduction We have heard euphemism in the movies and television programs. We have read it in magazines and newspapers. We have relished it in the works of superb writers from Shakespeare to Milton. We have overheard it on the street corners and the park benches all over the world. As a very part of language and a common linguistic phenomenon, euphemism is so widely used in our daily life. Every society, every speech community, every social class has their euphemisms of various kinds; to speak euphemistically is a universal trait. As Hugh Rawson (1981:1) puts it, “ They (euphemisms) are embedded so deeply in our language that few of us, even those who pride themselves on being plain-spoken, ever get through a day without using them. Thus, euphemisms are societys basic lingua non franca. As such, they are outward and visible signs of our inward anxieties, conflicts, fears and shames. They are like radioactive isotopes. By tracing them, it is possible to see what has been (and is) going on in our language, our minds and our culture.” The study of English euphemisms has a long history. Early in the Anglo-saxon period, they were used so as not to offend political or religious leaders or the gods. In the early 1580s, the British writer, George Blunt, used the term “euphemism” in English and defined it as “a good or favourable interpretation of a bad word” (Neaman and Silver, 1983:4). In the last few decades, many scholars have carried out manifold studies from different points of view. A lot of progress has been made. Menken, an American linguist, carried on a rather detailed analysis of how and why several hundred euphemisms came into being and became voguish in his book The American Language (1936). In 1981, the British linguist Hugh Rawson published his classic Rawsons Dictionary of Euphemisms and Other Doubletalk which was representative of the achievements made on the euphemism study over the decades by many American and British linguists. And in the same year, the British linguist G. Leech in his Principles of Pragmatics illustrates the pragmatic functions of English euphemisms. The year 1983 witnessed the publication of another masterpiece on euphemism research Kind Words: A Thesaurus of Euphemisms compiled by J. S. Neaman and C. G. Silver.In China, many papers have probed into the relations between taboo and euphemism, cultural features and social functions of euphemism. English euphemism has also been an interesting topic among Chinese linguists and scholars. For a long time, they have been studying English euphemism primarily from the perspective of rhetoric, with Chen Wangdao as the pioneer. Another scholar who has made great contribution to the study of English euphemism is Chen Yuan. He provided a meticulous analysis of English euphemism in his book Sociolinguistics. In the following years, many academic papers on a further, multi-dimensional study of English euphemism have been published.Great progress has been made in the study of English euphemism, but limitations exist in thoroughness and extensiveness. The scope of the previous study has been so far restricted to the level of lexicon. However, there do exist some grammatical, pragmatic and even non-linguistic means of expressing things euphemistically in almost every society. Whats more, the theoretical bases for English euphemism, their pragmatic features and functions in language communication as well as the understanding of their use in different contexts remain to be further explored.Inspired by the preceding achievements made, taking into account the existing problems unsolved, the author formulates a new approach to the analysis of English euphemisma pragmatic approach. By the early 80s, pragmatics has been generally accepted as one of the basic branches of linguistics. Whatever the definition of pragmatics is, the notion that context decides meanings lives at the centre of this discipline. The same is true of the study of English euphemism. In addition, the author also attempts to explore into the pragmatic vagueness of English euphemism. Few people have studied English euphemism from the perspective of pragmatic vagueness, so the author aims to provide some insights for the future study of English euphemism. Chapter one is an introduction. It reviews the studies made on English euphemism, clarifies some major defects in them and then advances a new way to analyze this subjectan analysis from the perspective of pragmatics. Chapter two forms the basis of the whole research by introducing some fundamental knowledge about English euphemism. The definition, classification, and formation of English euphemism as well as the principles in forming and developing English euphemism are discussed. Chapter three is the central part of the thesis. It focuses on the relationship between pragmatics and English euphemism. The basic characteristics of pragmatics and the pragmatic functions of English euphemism are analyzed. In addition, CP, PP, extra-linguistic context, pragmatic vagueness and their relationships with English euphemism are illustrated in detail. Chapter four is the conclusion and implication of the thesis. The knowledge about English euphemism can help to reduce pragmatic failures in cross-cultural communications.51Chapter 2 Some Fundamental Knowledge about English EuphemismChapter 2Some Fundamental Knowledge about English EuphemismEuphemism is a universal linguistic phenomenon. It is widely used in almost every era and in almost every culture. With the exception of the period before the Norman Conquest, when there was too sparse evidence to reach any reasonable conclusions, all periods of English have been characterized by the presence of explicit or neutral vocabulary side by side with synonyms or near synonyms of varying degrees of inexplicitness. The synonyms that are “good-sounding” are often euphemisms. The word “ euphemism ” comes from Greek, “ eu ” means “ good ” or “ well ”, the root “ pheme ” means “ saying ” or “ speech ”, and “ ism ” is a noun suffix. Therefore, it means literally “ to speak with good words or in a pleasant manner.”2.1 Definition of English EuphemismEuphemism has been defined differently in different books and dictionaries by different scholars. Until now, no agreement has been reached on a universally acceptable definition of euphemism. Some influential definitions are cited below:(1) a polite, tactful or less explicit term used to avoid the direct naming of an unpleasant, painful or frightening reality. (Websters Third New International Dictionary, 1961)(2) A mild or vague periphrastic expression as a substitute for blunt precision of disagreeable truth. (Forler, 1965 )(3) A euphemism is used as an alternative to dispreferred expression, in order to avoid possible loss of face: either ones own face or, through giving offence, that of the audience, or of some third party. (Allan and Burridge, 1991:18)(4) A mild or vague expression substituted for one thought to be too harsh or direct. (Concise Oxford Dictionary, 9th edition, 1995)(5) A mild or vague expression substituted for a harsher or more direct one. (Pocket Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 1996)(6) Use of pleasant, mild or indirect words or phrases in place of more accurate or direct ones. (Oxford Advanced Learners English-Chinese Dictionary, 1997)Although these definitions of euphemism are described in different terms, they share one basic idea: euphemism is a mild, vague and polite mode of expression used to mean something unpleasant. In communication, it can make the unpleasant things sound better, and make people feel good; it can also ensure both the speaker and the hearer safe without losing face and ensure them comfortable at mutual presence. In definitions (2), (4) and (5), the scholars all use the word “vague”, which indicates that there is a close relationship between vague language and euphemism. The author will probe into the relationship between pragmatic vagueness and English euphemism in Chapter