Arugument课堂讲义by张雷东.doc

Argument课堂讲义更新时间： 2008-8-26 来源： 点击数： 3278 Argument preparing strategies 1，掌握基本逻辑知识；理解Critical thinking2，熟读每一道题目3，学习体会闪光句型的使用4，大量阅读积累语言，形成各部分自己的写作模板5，列出每道题的写作提纲6，考前全文练习1020篇Argument 题目的结构：Evidence conclusion support审题的基本任务：分清论据和结论，看清推理关系结论往往由表结果的连词引导，如：Therefore, thus, so, hence, consequently, evidently还有：Clearly, should ，以及目的状语从句 论据的主要形式 事实 Facts 统计 Statistics 例子 Examples 类比 Analogies 对比 Comparisons 权威 Authorities (Experts opinions) 假设 Assumptions写作原则 逻辑方面：切中要害 语言方面：言简意赅 词汇：注意区分书面词汇和口语词汇 句式：多变，适度复杂读题时需注意的地方 文章前后论据论点各自的讨论对象 限定成分（定语、状语、从句） 绝对化词汇：all, any, every, only, unique, most, bestArgument writing steps1，skim the topic and write the introduction浏览题目写开头段；2，input topic sentences for body paragraphs为正文段落输入段首句；3，develop body paragraphs one by one逐一展开正文段落；4，write the conclusion写结尾段；5，checking检查How to write the introductory paragraph 复述原文结论 简要复述原文论据 指出论证过程存在缺陷根据结论的不同性质采用不同动词引领： 万用动词：claim, assert, allege, state, contend, maintain 建议类结论：suggest, advise, advocate, propose 预言类结论：predict, forecast/ foresee, project 表示期待，盼望：expect, anticipateCommon fallacies in topics题目中的常见缺陷1，Survey调查数据类问题Survey / statistics / study /report/ census / pollProcedure of a typical survey Divide the general group into several sub-groups Analyze the percentage of each sub-group in the general group Randomly select sample1) Procedure of the survey A, selective sample选择性样本A 193 Many teachers were actually excluded from the survey. The result of the survey lacks credibility because the arguer fails to include teachers in other subjects. The result of the survey lacks credibility and therefore could not lend strong support to what the arguer maintains. Cause-effect fallacy: The arguer fails to establish the causal relationship between A and B homework frequency and the students performanceA 238 The survey does not include all the graduates in MVC, thus it is almost impossible to evaluate the employment result in MVC. The comparison between A and B is incomplete, hence we can hardly evaluate the employment results of the two colleges. The arguer fails to establish the causal relationship between the fact that A and the fact that B The arguer fails to convince us that A will contribute to B that offering more courses in computer technology will contribute to the employment of graduating seniors in MVC. B, quantity of the sample样本的数量A 180 The sample is too limited. The arguer commits a fallacy of false analogy. Are these companies comparable? The assumption that $500 is a cheap tuition is open to doubt The arguer fails to convince us that all employees at APC need to improve their reading speed. C, Do the statistics make any difference?调查是否有意义A 158 In the absence of /For lack of /Lacking data concerning the total amount of garbage sites and people living near them in the state The argument treats a lack of proof that the current system of garbage sites will pose some extent of health hazard as constituting sufficient proof that it will not pose any significant health hazard. D, What question was asked in the survey?调查所问问题是否恰当A 147 Other questions that directly related to the conclusion: How about the supply of such video games? Can the players afford these games? How many players have access to such kind of computers? The arguer ignores (overlooks, neglects) other possible factors that may also lead to the decline in the sales of their video games. No evidence could indicate that players 10-25 years old will prefer such kind of games. The arguer does not consider other features that may also influence the overall quality of a game. E, Who conducted the survey?调查的进行机构A 156F, When was the survey conducted?调查的时效性2) Result of the surveyA, vague data模糊数据A 144 The arguer fails to convince us that funding for education is not a priority for most people, because we do not know the base amount of donations each group received the year before last. Maybe the educational institutions did not carry out effective fund raising campaign last year. Granted thatwe cannot ensure that it is the peoples perception suggested by the arguer that resulted in the differences in donation rates. A 145 Snore Sleep apnea Tired No exercises Gain weight We need to know what fraction of people who snore actually suffer from sleep apnea. People who suffer from sleep apnea may actually exercise during the day although they are tired. The assumption that every people who snore will necessarily eat more and exercise less than normal is unwarranted. B, completeness调查结果的完整性A 239 The survey does not provide complete information concerning the effect of curfew policy in Williamsville. It is possible that many crimes were committed at the town square but not reported. False analogy: Are the two towns comparable at every aspect? 3) Respondents of the surveyA, are the respondents forthright when answering the questions?回应者是否诚实B, are the respondents representative?回应者是否具有代表性A 112，False analogy/false comparison错误类比/错误对比1) False analogy错误类比A 25 The arguer neglects other possible methods that may improve Hopewells economy more efficiently. The arguer does not point out how the golf course and the resort hotel actually contributed to the economy of Ocean View. 质疑错误类比的基本思路：列举类比双方的可能差异2) Incomplete comparison/selective comparison/Ex parte information不完整比较/选择性比较/单方面信息A 233 Other factors that may influence the condition of roads: Traffic: maybe the traffic on Route 101 is much busier than on Route 66; Weather, climate, geological factors; Maintenance The arguer unfairly (falsely) assumes that Appians work and quality are superior to McAdams. incomplete information:No evidence about the performance of the new quality-control manager at Appian is provided.3) Confusing comparison and variation横向比较与纵向比较混淆A 216 Non-neighboring towns might enjoy even lower real estate taxes. Unrelated concepts:A does not indicate B The number of physicians does not necessarily indicate the quality of health-care.3，Hasty generalization草率推广1) Unrelated concepts 无关概念A 10 The number of dairy farms does not necessarily indicate the supply of milk after adjustment for inflation 扣除通货膨胀因素 How much did the price of milk actually increase after adjustment for inflation？ demand : supply cost : profitA 235 A is not a good indication of B. The sales of recorded music are not a good indication of whether people prefer rock and roll. The arguer falsely assumes that older people do not prefer rock and roll. The fact that local citizens are interested in becoming better informed about politics before the election does not follow that they will be interested in continuous news program all the time.2) Changing scopes 差异范围A 206 The arguer does not differentiate between the severity of injuries. The arguer does not provide any information concerning the severity of injuries. The arguer fails to consider the positive effects of athletic competition.3) Inferring a future condition from a past condition从过去情况推知将来质疑的基本思路：列举可能的变化因素A2374，Sufficiency and necessity of a solution对策的充分性与必要性 充分条件：A B只要有了A，就一定会有B；有之必然 质疑A对B充分性的思路：指出有之未必然（光A不够）；列举保证B所需的其它必要条件 必要条件：A B要想让B发生，必须先满足A；如果A不能满足，B也绝对不会发生；无之则必不然 质疑A对B必要性的思路：指出无之亦然（没A也行）；列举可以实现B的其它充分条件A 2245，Incomplete thoughts不全面思维1) Failing to consider the feasibility of the conclusion未考虑结论的可行性A 141 If the consumers can reliably distinguish products that are made with CCCs copper? 定义攻击法 定义攻击法的用途： 1，模棱两可、含糊不清的概念； 2，夸大其词、危言耸听的语言； 3，某些无关概念的草率推广2) Failing to weigh the advantages and disadvantages thoroughly未能全面衡量正负得失A 170 If the cost of the process is very expensive, Gulf Coast oyster producers will be profitless. The process may damage the taste of oysters, it may also kill some beneficial nutrition in oysters. The arguer fails to convince us that installing the process mentioned above will necessarily lead to increased safety of GC oysters.3) False dilemma (either-or fallacy) 非此即彼，极端选择A 182 Customers in other regions are more fastidious about the taste of food. The arguer does not provide any information concerning the possible change in the profit of HPH after the replacement.6, Cause effect fallacies因果关系错误1) non-causal relationship直接无因果A 212 The arguer unfairly assumes that it is the body style of Patriot cars that was responsible for the decline in the sales of those cars. Alternative explanations: Price Performance; fuel consumption After-sale service No evidence concerning the preference of new drivers in term of style of cars is provided. What percentage of whole car consumer population do newly licensed drivers make up? Can they afford sporty cars?2) Confusing the cause and the effect因果倒置A 154 The arguer fails to rule out the possibility that those who engaged in vigorous outdoor excises do so just because they had outstanding physique. The arguer does not differentiate between the physique of different individuals.3) Confusing concurrence with causality同时性混淆为因果性A 153 National studies: Violent behavior Observer survey: Respondents 对比实验Controlled Experiment Counterparts: 对比实验参照物 Among the teenagers who committed crimes, how many of them frequently watch violent programs on TV? How about the rate compared with normal teenagers?4) Post hoc, ergo propter hoc时间先后混淆为因果性A 195 Maybe there was overstocking of former books written by small town authors.How to develop body paragraphs如何展开正文段落1, 正文段落的数量：34个正文段落比较合适2, 正文段落的连贯性： 恰当使用段落连接语言 First second - finally In the first place/In the second place The major problem with this argument is that/Another flaw that weakens the logic of the argument is that/Befor