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the medieval craft of memory an anthology of texts and pictures university of pennsylvania press edited by mary carruthers and jan m ziolkowski the medieval craft of memory tseng 2002 7 1 07 28 6650 carruthers the medieval craft of memory sheet 1 of 318 m a t e r i a lt e x t s series editors roger chartieranthony grafton joan dejeanjanice radway joseph farrellpeter stallybrass a complete list of books in the series is available from the publisher tseng 2002 7 1 07 28 6650 carruthers the medieval craft of memory sheet 2 of 318 the medieval craft of memory an anthology of texts and pictures edited by mary carruthers and jan m ziolkowski penn university of pennsylvania press philadelphia tseng 2002 7 1 07 28 6650 carruthers the medieval craft of memory sheet 3 of 318 publication of this book was aided by a grant from the abraham and rebecca stein faculty publication fund of new york university department of english copyright university of pennsylvania press all rights reserved printed in the united states of america on acid free paper published by university of pennsylvania press philadelphia pennsylvania library of congress cataloging in publication data the medieval craft of memory an anthology of texts and pictures edited by mary carruthers and jan m ziolkowski isbn cloth alk paper p cm includes bibliographical references and index mnemonics i carruthers mary ii ziolkowski jan m iii series bf m dc tseng 2002 7 1 07 28 6650 carruthers the medieval craft of memory sheet 4 of 318 contents general introduction hugh of st victor the three best memory aids for learning history hugh of st victor a little book about constructing noah s ark the guidonian hand alan of lille on the six wings of the seraph boncompagno da signa on memory albertus magnus commentary on aristotle on memory and recollection thomas aquinas commentary on aristotle on memory and recollection francesc eiximenis on two kinds of order that aid understanding and memory thomas bradwardine on acquiring a trained memory john of metz the tower of wisdom jacobus publicius the art of memory anonymous a method for recollecting the gospels appendix two texts on rhetorical memoria from late antiquity consultus fortunatianus on memory c julius victor on memory general bibliography list of contributors index tseng 2002 7 1 07 28 6650 carruthers the medieval craft of memory sheet 5 of 318 this page intentionally left blank general introduction mary carruthers and jan m ziolkowski this anthology is devoted to the methods of a craft that seems to many people now not just antiquated but wrongheaded how can our own mem ory be thought of as the product of a craft and even more to the point why should it be in one common meaning of the word memory specifi cally connotes storage a treasure house both of experiences and of facts we can think of our memories as being like valuables in a bank vault just sit ting in our brains collecting dust and grime perhaps in a poorly made and tended vault suff ering depredations from rats and air pollution until obliv ion overtakes them this is a curious intellectual model for it suggests that our memories are essentially passive impressions of experiences we have had that can be taken out whole and unchanged whenever we need them the notion that in re collecting we actually make and remake our memories is re garded as somehow shameful an admission that memory like art and poetry can tell lies yet it is also true that to make use of memories indeed to know they are there in our minds at all we must recall them to our active awareness our knowing re collection is not passive but rather an activity involving human will and thought it is often defi ned as a form of reasoning one may conveniently think of this activity in spatial terms as if memories have been stored in a variety of places and must be called together in a common place where we can become aware of them where we can see them again and know them in the present contemporary imaging of the brain activities in volved in thought and recollection suggests that a spatial model may indeed refl ect at some level what actually happens in the neurophysiology of human thought though these techniques and analyses are still too unrefi ned to dem onstrate fully to what degree this model is neurologically true in the loca tional model stored memories are the materials of cognition and the act of knowing begins though it does not always end there with the activities of fi nding and collecting their images from within one s mind ancient and medieval writers on memory recognized as we now do the dual aspects of storage and recollection involved in remembering their com monest model for human memory likened it to a tablet or a parchment page upon which a person writes re collection was essentially a task of compo sition literally bringing together matters found in the various places where they are stored to be reassembled in a new place the assumption that human memories are made and remade is emphasized by the very words used to de scribe memory far from being passive and thus at least possibly neutral tseng 2002 7 1 07 28 6650 carruthers the medieval craft of memory sheet 7 of 318 general introduction memory making was regarded as active it was even a craft with techniques and tools all designed to make an ethical useful product the anthology we have brought together here collects some of the tools thought useful in the middle ages for memory making in it are both words and pictures intimately and collaboratively related as devices for composing thoughts and memories in the words can be found many pictures in the pictures many words moreover it is not so apparent where one medium leaves off and the other begins for many of the pictures are visual puns and pictures of words and many of the words are verbal paintings and drawings in medieval learned cultures all the material in this volume was produced in learned even academic circles for purposes of reading and new compo sition such a thorough mixing of media especially the visual and the ver bal was commonplace these two media not only referred importantly to other things both worldly and spiritual in nature thus having some sort of representational content in our sense of the word but were considered equally to be basic tools for making thoughts they thus had a fundamentally cognitive function quite beside whatever content they might have indeed manyof the pictures in this book are deliberately nonrepresentational because it is their cognitive function that is emphasized memoria was the name given in monasticism to this cognitive craft which is an art of composing the realization that composing depended on a well furnished and securely available memory formed the basis of rhetori cal education in antiquity the elementary education in language arts that was the vehicle for forming excellence paideia in both the person and the citi zen the founders of early monasticism men like augustine of hippo john cassian and jerome were formed by this ancient education and helped inte grate its emphasis on invention the composition of speech with the habits of meditation on sacred texts that had been cultivated for centuries in juda ism and then among the desert fathers of early christianity in syria pales tine and egypt these early monks called their meditational practice mn m theou memory of god a goal achieved though never completely by a set of established practices including particular postures murmured pieces of memorized sacred text and pictures both mental and actual used to in duce a prescribed way of emotionally marked out stages toward divine the ria or seeing while their meditation usually began with an exactly repeated segment of text it was then supposed to expand in prayerful composition as hugh of st victor wrote in the early twelfth century meditation is a regular period of deliberate thought it takes its start from reading but is not at all bound by the rules or precepts of lecture for it delights to run freely through open space touching on now these now those connections among sub tseng 2002 7 1 07 28 6650 carruthers the medieval craft of memory sheet 8 of 318 general introduction jects whence it is that in meditation is to be found the greatest pleasure and amusement 1 thus as an art memory was most importantly associated in the middle ages with composition not simply with retention medieval memoria took the inventive function of human memory for granted and emphasized it in deed those who practiced the crafts of memory used them as all crafts are used to make new things prayers meditations sermons pictures hymns stories and poems students of art and literature have long remarked on the intensely pictorial and aff ective qualities of these arts in the middle ages commonly this has been attributed to a need to accommodate the rustic qualities of their audiences but a better reason for these characteristics may lie in the methods used to compose such works of art in which case their pictorial intensity must be understood not as a condescension to rude minds but as a creative device of meditation itself the fi rst task of an artist whether of prayer or painting planning his work and in the lastingly powerful eff ect these images this music these stories have had over the centuries the con tinuing creativity of the mental crafts used to make them receives its best proof most of the material in this collection was put together for the purposes of people needing to make compositions that were initially orally presented sermons and prayers school lectures and homilies all of it was written down in the twelfth century or later a time of spreading literacy in western europe more people had access to written texts and more business was conducted using written materials than had been the case during much of the preced ing half millennium and yet the increase in literacy to a great extent driven by the growing respectability of vernacular languages resulted in an increased interestinmemoriaandworksdevotedtoitspractice not aswemightexpect a decrease in the late medieval period europe was a time of greatly increased audiences in size and in diversity forall sorts of artistic compositions and the sheer amounts they consumed are astonishing to consider now as we know from many sources among them chaucer s wife of bath vernacular preach ing was a major source of entertainment on one famous occasion a domini can friar william jordan d after kept all london enthralled fora week with his preaching another friar giordano of pisa d preached for successive lenten seasons fi ve times a day for forty days each time to large crowds in the piazza before santa maria novella in florence in addition lay hugh of st victor didascalicon buttimeredition meditatio est cogitatio frequens cum consilio principium sumit a lectione nullis tamen stringitur regulis aut praeceptis lec tionis delectatur enim quodam aperto decurrerre spatio et nunc has nunc illas rerum causas perstringere unde fi t ut maximum in meditatione sit oblectamentum tseng 2002 7 1 07 28 6650 carruthers the medieval craft of memory sheet 9 of 318 general introduction people as well as clerics were enjoined to frequent personal devotions includ ing prayers meditations and examinations of conscience all to be performed thoughtfully and mindfully composing such personal meditations became another major task of memoria in fact memoryart and confession became so closely identifi ed in the very late middle ages that a number of seventeenth century works called an art of memory are devoted solely to examining one s conscience these two tasks composing sermons and meditations to be delivered to particular audiences and composing frequent personal devo tions govern much of the medieval craft of memory as it is represented in this collection only the earliest of our authors hugh of st victor d wrote entirely for a clerical audience living under a monastic rule including the novices of his own order of augustinian canons basic principles of memoria because memoria is to such an important extent an art of composition the primary goals in preparing material for memory are fl exibility security and ease of recombining matters into new patterns and forms basic to these aims are the paired tasks of division and composition a fourth century grammarian juliusvictor whosework was especially infl uential in the earlier middle ages and who in turn was most indebted to the fi rst century author quintilian wrote that memoria is the fi rm mental grasp of things and words for the purpose of invention to ensure this security material is fi rst cut up into divisiones or distinctiones and then these segments are mentally marked and memorized in a readily recoverable order such as numerically or alphabeti cally inthisway errorisavoided forifthepiecesaresecurelyboundtogether in a sequential order such as one two three etc none can be overlooked or forgotten each segment should be short brevis no larger than what your mental eye can encompass in a single glance or conspectus this require ment answers to what psychologists now call short term memory a more re cent term is working memory the limits of which have been famously set at seven plus or minus two units 2by building chains of such segments in this number was arrived at through experiments by the psychologist george a miller conducted in part at bell laboratories to help determine the optimal length of a personal tele phone number important to the memorability of such sequences which need to be securely recalled with complete accuracy in a great varietyof circumstances is not only thewhole number of digits but also their grouping orclustering within the number segment as two groups of dig its each or four groups of digits each or a group of plus a group of and the like see g a miller the magical number seven plus or minus two psychological review subsequent research has lengthened the limits of working memory somewhat but not much be yond units for most people the relevance of miller s work to understanding the medieval mnemotechnical principles of dividing and gathering is discussed further in carruthers book of memory tseng 2002 7 1 07 28 6650 carruthers the medieval craft of memory sheet 10 of 318 general introduction one s memory a very long work such as all the psalms or the whole aeneid can readily be retained and securely recovered either in its original orderor rearranged and extracted to suit a new composition simply by invoking vari ous numerical sequences such enumeration of short segments of a long work is of course the principle behind numbering by chapter and verse hugh of st victor s preface to his biblical chronicle selection details just how this essential method worked thus to divide matter into distinctiones in order to preach is a device not so much for objective classifi cation as for ease of shuffl ing and the ability to know where you are in your composition a simple rigorous ordering scheme is critical to the practice of oratory for it cues the way of a speaker s principal or starting points in the same manner as an outline does today in doing so it enables me as speaker readily to enlarge a point to digress and to make spur of the moment rhetorical side trips of all sorts because i can always be sure of where i am in the composition not in the manner of a parrot which reciting mindlessly never knows where it is but in the manner of an experienced harbor pilot recalling landmarks the complementary principle to dividing is gathering and collecting each new composition can also be conceived as a place into which culled and rec ollected matters are gathered the very concept of reading in latin is based on the notion of gathering latin legere to read having as its root mean ing to collect up to gather by picking plucking and the like the greek verb leg had a similar range of meaning from to lay something down or to lay asleep to to lay things in order hence to gather pick up to relate to speak purposefully the name of one venerable and essential type of ancient and medieval encyclopedia puns on these closely allied verbs the florilegium fl ower culling with a pun on fl ower reading a collection of sayings maxims and stories collected from past works sometimes quoted exactly though in mnemonically brief segments but often just summarized the best known of these through much of the middle ages was valerius maximus s dicta et facta memorabilia early fi rst century but there are many other examples indeed the premodern encyclopedia itself is a sort of memory book the fl owers of one s extensive reading gathered up in some orderly arrangement for the purpose of quick secure recollection in connec tion with making a new composition after all this is one essential purpose of encyclopedias even today the schemes used varied greatly in this collection alone are examples of the architectural plan and section of a large and entirely imaginary building noah s ark the feathers on the six wings of a seraphic angel a fi ve story fi ve room section of a house a columnar diagram the stones in the wall of a tseng 2002 7 1 07 28 6650 carruthers the medieval craft of memory sheet 11 of 318 general introduction turreted urban tower the rungs of ladders the rows of seats in an amphithea ter and a world map gardens were also popular the medieval sort of garden with orderly beds of medicinal plants and fruit trees separated by grass and surrounded by a wall undoubtedly gardens became popular with monastic and later writers because of the song of songs a preeminent text for mystical meditation various other biblical structures were often used too the taber nacle described in exodus the temple described in kings the jerusalem citadel envisioned by ezekiel and often confl ated with the heavenly city of the apocalypse we now would never think to organize an encyclopedia of knowledge on the plan of noah s ark but for a clerical audience to whom this text was as familiar as the order of the alphabet is to us why not it is a simple if large clearly arranged if imaginary composition site containing many useful compartments with a straightforward route among them a sort of foundational map to use in arranging your materials or res in latin as you gather them into the location of your new composition from the networks of your experiences including of course all your experiences of books music and other arts thus in the course of an ideal medieval education in addi tion to acquiring a great many segments of scriptural and classical texts one also would acquire an extensive repertoire of image schemes in which to put them both to lay them away and to collect them in new arrangements on later occasions locational memory these schematic images were often referred to as pictures picturae and were said to be painted in one s mind as a requirement of composi tion in his infl uential treatise the new poetry poetria nova so named with reference to horace s old poetry which he composed in theveryearly thir teenth century geoff rey of vinsauf describes how a poet should set to work on the model of an architect the measuring line of his heart designs the work as a whole let the mind s interior compass fi rst circle the whole extent of the material let a defi nite order chart in advance at what point the penwilltakeupitscourse orwhereitwillfi xitscadiz itsoutermostgoaland limit as a prudent workman construct the whole fabric within the mind s citadel 3these compositional tropes the measuring line the encir cling compass the map the fabric of a building are not just pleasant meta phors but evoke specifi c categories of collecting and invention devices of the sort discussed above the translation is that of margaret f nims toronto pontifi cal institute of mediaeval studies of the text in edmond faral ed les arts po tiques des xiie et xiiie si cles rpt paris champion tseng 2002 7 1 07 28 6650 carruthers the me
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