Dictionary Of Philosophy.pdf
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foldop free on line dictionary of philosophy off line versionpagina 1 di 644 file c 04 06 00 current number of entries 2418 this is the free offline version of the foldop 3 free on line dictionary of philosophy you could find and consult the interactive on line version at www swif it foldop ism a general suffix commonly used to designate varieties of philosophical opinion although useful for some purposes such labels should not be taken too seriously individual philosophers nearly always deal creatively with complex specific issues developing arguments in defense of their own views it is only later that we who read them find it convenient to invent simple names for positions that several of them seem to share study of philosophy benefits more from careful reading of the texts themselves than from the artificial classification of their themes a dictionary of philosophical terms and names 00 00 0000 a dictionary of philosophical terms and names a dictionary of philosophical terms and names this is a concise guide to technical terms and personal names often encountere in the study of philosophy what you will find here naturally reflects my own philosophical interests and convictions but everything is meant to be clear accurate and fair a reliable source of information on western philosophy for a broad audience by garth kemerling editor 28 10 2001 a fortiori to the stronger or even more so we are bound to accept an a fortiori claim because of our prior acceptance of a weaker application of the same reasoning or truth thus for example frank can t run to the store in less than five minutes and the restaurant is several blocks further away than the store thus a fortiori frank can t run to the restaurant in less than five minutes a dictionary of philosophical terms and names 16 11 2001 foldop free on line dictionary of philosophy off line versionpagina 2 di 644 file c 04 06 00 a philosophical glossary a philosophical glossary http www hfac uh edu phil leiber glossar htm edited by justin leiber philosophy department university of houston usa some definitions in this dictionary are based on the version published in 2001 04 05 25 04 2001 a posteriori a sentence proposition thought or judgement is a posteriori literally after if its truth is dependent on how our actual experience experiment and observation turns out many have thought that the truths of the empirical or nonmathematical sciences are entirely a posteriori though the rationalists and some recent philosophers such as s kripke the rest are supposed to be deducible from these euclid s geometry provides the model for this traditional conception with a posteriori knowledge or statements on the other hand justification does invoke sensory experience either directly via perception or indirectly via induction many have thought that the truths of logic and mathematics are a priori though j s mill and w v o quine might be thought to maintain the contrary position some equate a priori and analytic the ontological argument for the existence of god is deemed a priori based on a philosophical glossary philosophical glossary 28 07 2001 a consciousness access consciousness 13 02 2004 a life artificial life 13 02 2004 abduction the process of inference to the best explanation the term is sometimes used to mean just the generation of hypotheses to explain observations or conclusions but the former definition is more common both in philosophy and computing the notion was first introduced by peirce cp 2 511 623 5 270 in an attempt to classify a certain form of syllogism abductive inferences are of the following form i all beans from this bag are white ii these beans are white foldop free on line dictionary of philosophy off line versionpagina 3 di 644 file c 04 06 00 iii therefore these beans are from this bag this inference results in an explanation of the observation in the second premise the semantics and the implementation of abduction cannot be reduced to those for deduction as explanation cannot be reduced to implication though this method of reasoning is not logically valid as the beans may be from a different source peirce argues that scientists regularly engage in this sort of inferential reasoning though scientific hypotheses are not valid by virtue of how they are abducted abductive reasoning was thought to constitute a logic of discovery in one of peirce s four steps of scientific investigation these steps are 1 observation of an anomaly 2 abduction of hypotheses for the purposes of explaining the anomaly 3 inductive testing of the hypotheses in experiments 4 deductive confirmation that the selected hypothesis predicts the original anomaly abduction is currently thought not to be well understood and peirce s formulation has been criticised as being restricted to language like mediums shelley 1996 it should be noted that for peirce abduction was restricted to the generation of explanatory hypotheses the more general characterisation of abduction as inference to the best explanation is a more recent interpretation applications include fault diagnosis plan formation and default reasoning negation as failure in logic programming can both be given an abductive interpretation and also can be used to implement abduction the abductive semantics of negation as failure leads naturally to an argumentation theoretic interpretation of default reasoning in general references peirce c 1958 volume 2 paragraph 511 623 volume 5 paragraph 270 in hartshoren and weiss levesque 1989 a knowledge level account of abduction in sridharan 1989 pp 1061 1067 shelley c 1996 visual abductive reasoning in archaeology philosophy of science association 63 278 301 abscissa the x coordinate on an x y graph the input f a function against which the output is plotted y is the ordinate see cartesian coordinates based on foldoc and chris eliasmith dictionary of philosophy of mind homepage http artsci wustl edu philos minddict 16 03 2001 abelard peter french scholastic logician 1079 1142 whose sexual relationship with his teen aged student heloise provoked the vengeful anger of her uncle fulbert in 1118 despite the many distractions of the turbulent life he described in historia calamitatum mearum the history of my misfortunes abelard embarked on a monastic career of detached contemplation marked by intellectual independence from both traditional authorities and contemporaneous fashions in commentaries on the logic of aristotle and his own dialectica abelard invented a novel solution to the problem of universals that rejected both realism and nominalism in their most extreme forms only individual things exist for abelard but general terms have universal applicability to things whose common features are known by a process of mental abstraction abelard also wrote on the difficulties involved in scriptural interpretation in sic et non for and against 1122 and on the importance of human intentions for theological ethics in scito te ipsum know thyself recommended reading five texts on the mediaeval problem of universals ed by paul vincent spade hackett 1994 john marenbon the philosophy of peter abelard cambridge 1999 letters of abelard and heloise ed by betty radice penguin 1998 foldop free on line dictionary of philosophy off line versionpagina 4 di 644 file c 04 06 00 a dictionary of philosophical terms and names 16 11 2001 abscissa the x coordinate on an x y graph the input f a function against which the output is plotted y is the ordinate see cartesian coordinates based on foldoc and chris eliasmith dictionary of philosophy of mind homepage http artsci wustl edu philos minddict 03 02 2004 absolute the solitary uniquely unconditioned utterly independent and ultimately all encompassing being that comprises all of reality according to such romantic idealists as schelling and hegel british philosopher f h bradley emphasized that the absolute must transcend all of the contradictory appearances of ordinary experience while american josiah royce took the absolute to be a spiritual entity whose self consciousness is reflected only imperfectly in the totality of human thought a dictionary of philosophical terms and names 16 11 2001 absolute consistency a system s is absolutely consistent iff at least ne wff of the formal language of s is not a theorem glossary of first order logic 16 03 2001 absolute inconsistency a system is absolutely inconsistent iff all its wffs are theorems 16 03 2001 absolutism the belief that there is one and only one truth those who espouse absolutism usually also believe that they know or have access to what this absolute truth is in ethics absolutism is usually contrasted to relativism see also authoritarianism in political theory based on ethics glossary 28 04 2001 foldop free on line dictionary of philosophy off line versionpagina 5 di 644 file c 04 06 00 absorption a rule of inference of the form p q p p ignoring or hiding details to capture some kind of commonality between different instances examples are abstract data type the representation details are hidden abstract syntax the details of the concrete syntax are ignored abstract interpretation details are ignored to analyse specific properties 2 parameterisation making something a function of something else examples are lambda abstraction making a term into a function of some variable higher order functions parameters are functions bracket abstraction making a term into a function of a variable opposite of concretisation foldoc 16 03 2001 foldop free on line dictionary of philosophy off line versionpagina 8 di 644 file c 04 06 00 abstractionism 1 in metaphysics see idealism 2 in aesthetics see modernism also called abstract expressionism 28 04 2001 absurd contrary to reason or beyond the limits of rationality paradoxical nonsensical or meaningless according to camus sartre and other existentialists absurdity is an inescapable consequence of any sensitive effort to live in the face of an indifferent reality the human tendency to desire most passionately what we can never have is absurd in this sense recommended reading donald a crosby specter of the absurd sources and criticisms of modern nihilism suny 1988 richard e baker the dynamics of the absurd in the existentialist novel peter lang 1993 martin esslin the theatre of the absurd viking 1992 a dictionary of philosophical terms and names 16 11 2001 abunaser latinized form of the name of persian philosopher al farabi a dictionary of philosophical terms and names 16 11 2001 acceptable use policy aup rules applied by many transit networks which restrict the use to which the network may be put a well known example is nsfnet which does not allow commercial use enforcement of aups varies with the network foldoc 16 03 2001 acceptance testing formal testing conducted to determine whether a system satisfies its acceptance criteria and thus whether the customer should accept the system foldoc 16 03 2001 acceptor finite state machine 04 02 2004 foldop free on line dictionary of philosophy off line versionpagina 9 di 644 file c 04 06 00 access consciousness also known as a consciousness is a kind of direct control a representation is access conscious if it is poised to be under direct control of reasoning reporting and action references ned block on a confusion about a function of consciousness http www cogsci soton ac uk bbs archive bbs block html behavioral and brain sciences 1995 18 227 287 a khwaja chris eliasmith dictionary of philosophy of mind homepage http artsci wustl edu philos minddict 13 02 2004 accident a feature that something happens to have but might have existed without having since this feature is no part of the very nature of the thing in contrast to the essence without which the thing could not be at all a dictionary of philosophical terms and names 16 11 2001 accident fallacy of lat a dicto simpliciter ad dictum secundum quid the informal fallacy of applying a generally reliable rule to a particular case without considering the qualifying features that make it an exception to the rule example since authors of best selling books usually appear on television talk shows and the pope is in fact the author of a best selling book it follows that the pope will soon appear on a television talk show unlimited applicability to every instance would follow syllogistically only from a genuinely universal proposition the truth of which is often difficult to defend merely probable guidelines are easier to establish as rules of thumb but do not deserve to be applied so indiscriminately a dictionary of philosophical terms and names 16 11 2001 accidentalism the position according to which some events are accidental that is either they are not predictable or they lack a cause accidentalism is part of some defenses of the freedom of the will see libertarianism see also indeterminism the ism book edited by giovanni benzi 24 03 2001 foldop free on line dictionary of philosophy off line versionpagina 10 di 644 file c 04 06 00 accuracy how close to the real value a measurement is compare precision foldoc 16 03 2001 acknowledgements many thanks to denis howe and to the many contributors and especially to the guest editors mirror site maintainers and the editors of the following resources from which some entries of foldop originate chris eliasmith dictionary of philosophy of mind lawrence m hinman ethics glossary denis howe foldoc justin leiber a philosophical glossary peter suber glossary of first order logic peter saint andre the ism book garth kemerling a dictionary of philosophical terms and names 28 10 2001 acronym an identifier formed from some of the letters often the initials of a phrase and used as an abbreviation foldoc 16 03 2001 act rule utilitarianism distinction between ways of applying the greatest happiness principle for moral evaluation on utilitarian grounds act utilitarianism supposes that each particular action should be evaluated solely by references to its own consequences while rule utilitarianism considers the consequences of widespread performance of similar actions the act utilitarian asks how much pleasure or pain would result if i did this now the rule utilitarian asks what pleasure or pain would result if everyone were always to do this since the answers to these questions may be quite different they may lead to distinct recommendations about moral conduct although mill noted that reliance on moral rules may be of practical use in decision making he argued that their influence should remain defeasible in particular circumstances recommended reading j j c smart and bernard williams utilitarianism for and against cambridge 1973 a dictionary of philosophical terms and names 16 11 2001 foldop free on line dictionary of philosophy off line versionpagina 11 di 644 file c 04 06 00 action that which an agent or actor a does in contrast to that which merely happens to a or to a s parts 16 03 2001 action theory branch of philosophy concerned with the analysis and explanation of what human beings do understanding the relation between choice or volition and the performance of an action seems crucial for the ascription of responsibility in ethics recommended reading readings in the theory of action ed by norman s care and charles landesman indiana 1968 the philosophy of action ed by alfred r mele oxford 1997 philosophical perspectives action theory and philosophy ed by james e tomberlin ridgeview 1990 a dictionary of philosophical terms and names 16 11 2001 active object an object each instance of which has its own thread running as well as its own copies of the object s instance variables foldoc 16 03 2001 actor 1 in object oriented programming an object which exists as a concurrent process 2 in chorus the unit of resource allocation foldoc 16 03 2001 actors a model for concurrency by carl hewitt actors are autonomous and concurrent objects which execute asynchronously the actor model provides flexible mechanisms for building parallel and distributed software systems http osl cs uiuc edu laws for communicating parallel processes c hewitt et al ifip 77 pp 987 992 n h 1977 actors a model of concurrent computation in distributed systems gul a agha cambridge press ma 1986 foldoc 16 03 2001 foldop free on line dictionary of philosophy off line versionpagina 12 di 644 file c 04 06 00 actual what really is the case as opposed to what s possible could be the case and to what s necessary must be the case all of which are opposed to what s impossible can t be the case concerning the latter opposition the categories possible and impossible are jointly exhaustive everything is either one or the other concerning the former opposition necessity actuality and possibility are not mutually exclusive everything necessary is also actual what must be the case is the case and everything actual is possible whatever is possible in other words necessity entails actuality and actuality entails possibility also see contingent philosophical glossary 29 05 2001 actuality potentiality gr energeia dynamis aristotle s distinction between what really is the case and what merely has the power to change or come to be the case thus for example this fresh acorn is actually a seed but only potentially an oak tree a dictionary of philosophical terms and names 16 11 2001 ad hoc contrived purely for the purpose in hand rather than planned carefully in advance e g we didn t know what to do about the sausage rolls so we set up an ad hoc committee foldoc 16 03 2001 ad hominem argument argument against the person the informal fallacy of supposing that a proposition should be denied because of some disqualifying features of the person who affirms it this fallacy is the mirror image of the appeal to authority in its abusive form ad hominem is a direct and often inflammatory attack on the appearance character or personality of the individual example jeremy claims that susan was at the party but since jeremy is the kind of person who has to ride to work on the city bus it must be false that she was there a circumstantial ad hominem accuses the person of having an alternative motive for defending the proposition or points out its inconsistency with the person s other views tu quoque the so do you fallacy uses a similar method in response to criticism of a position already held recommended reading douglas walton ad hominem arguments alabama 1998 a dictionary of philosophical terms and names 16 11 2001 adaptive learning or hebbian learning learning where a system programs itself by adjusting weights or strengths until it produces the desired output foldoc 16 03 2001 foldop free on line dictionary of philosophy off line versionpagina 13 di 644 file c 04 06 00 addams jane american pragmatist and social worker 1860 1935 concerned by the dismal living conditions endured by women minorities and the working poor addams established hull house in chicago as a social settlement in 1889 and campaigned tirelessly for women s suffrage world peace and economic justice her address to the chicago liberty meeting democracy or militarism 1899 and the pamphlet why women should vote 1909 are representative expressions of her belief that women properly exert a pacifistic influence on american political life her writings on social issues include democracyand social ethics 1902 newer ideals of peace 1907 a new conscience and an ancient evil 1911 twenty years at hull house 1912 the larger aspects of the women s movement 1914 and women war and suffrage 1915 addams shared the 1931 nobel prize for peace recommended reading allen f davis american heroine ivan r dee 2000 mary jo deegan jane addams and the men of the chicago school 1892 1918 transaction 1990 a dictionary of philosophical terms and names 16 11 2001 addition a rule of inference of the form p p v q example it is raining therefore either it is raining or the sun is shining although its use in ordinary thought is notably rare this pattern of reasoning serves a vital role in the construction of formal pro
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