英语语法 (2).doc

1在复合句中做定语的从句称为定语从句，它可以用来修饰名词或代词。被定语从句修饰的名词或代词叫先行词。定语从句必须放在先行词后面。2引导定语从句的词通常被称为关系词。关系词一般位于先行词与定语从句之间，且作为定语从句的一个成分。关系词又分为关系代词和关系副词。I 关系代词引导的定语从句关系代词所代替的先行词是人或物的名词或代词，并在句中充当主语、宾语、定语等成分。关系代词在定语从句中作主语时，从句谓语动词的人称和数要和先行词保持一致。1）who, whom, that 这些词代替的先行词是人的名词或代词，在从句中作主语和宾语。例如： Is he the man who/that wants to see you? 他就是你想见的人吗？（who/that在从句中作主语） He is the man whom/ that I saw yesterday. 他就是我昨天见的那个人。（whom/that在从句中作宾语）2） whose 用来指人或物，（只用作定语, 若指物，它还可以同of which互换）。例如： They rushed over to help the man whose car had broken down.那人车坏了，大家都跑过去帮忙。 Please pass me the book whose （of which） cover is green.请递给我那本绿皮的书。3）which, that所代替的先行词是事物的名词或代词，在从句中可作主语、宾语等。例如：A prosperity which / that had never been seen before appears in the countryside.农村出现了前所未有的繁荣。（which / that在句中作宾语）The package （which / that）you are carrying is about to come unwrapped. 你拿的包快散了。（which / that在句中作宾语）II. 关系副词引导的定语从句 关系副词可代替的先行词是时间、地点或理由的名词，在从句中作状语。1）关系副词when, where, why的含义相当于介词+ which结构，因此常常和介词+ which结构交替使用。例如：I will never forget the day when I met her. 我将永远不会忘记我见到她的那一天 Beijing is the place where（in which） I was born.北京是我的出生地。 Is this the reason why （for which） he refused our offer?这就是他拒绝我们帮助他的理由吗？2）that代替关系副词，可以用于表示时间、地点、方式、理由的名词后取代when, where, why和介词+ which引导的定语从句，在口语中that常被省略。例如： His father died the year （that / when / in which） he was born.他父亲在他出生那年逝世了。 He is unlikely to find the place （that / where / in which） he lived forty years ago. 他不大可能找到他四十年前居住过的地方。III.判断关系代词与关系副词 方法一： 用关系代词，还是关系副词完全取决于从句中的谓语动词。及物动词后面无宾语，就必须要求用关系代词；而不及物动词则要求用关系副词。例如： This is the mountain village where I stayed last year. 这是我去年呆过的山村。 Ill never forget the days when I worked together with you.我永远不会忘记与你共事的日子。 方法二： 准确判断先行词在定语从句中的成分（主、谓、宾、定、状），也能正确选择出关系代词/关系副词。例1. Is this museum _ you visited a few days age? A. whereB. that C. on which D. the one例2. Is this the museum _ the exhibition was held. A. whereB. that C. on whichD. the one答案：例1 D，例2 A例1变为肯定句： This museum is _ you visited a few days ago.例2变为肯定句： This is the museum _ the exhibition was held.在句1中，所缺部分为宾语，而where, that, on which都不能起到宾语的作用，只有the one既做了主句的表语，又可做从句的宾语，可以省略关系代词，所以应选D。而句2中, 主、谓、宾俱全，从句部分为句子的状语表地点，既可用副词where，又因 in the museum词组，可用介词in + which 引导地点状语。而此题中，介词on 用的不对，所以选A。关系词的选择依据在从句中所做的成分，先行词在从句中做主、定、宾语时，选择关系代词（who, whom, that, which, whose）； 先行词在从句中做状语时，应选择关系副词 （ where 地点状语，when 时间状语，why 原因状语） 。IV. 限制性和非限制性定语从句1） 定语从句有限制性和非限制性两种。限制性定语从句是先行词不可缺少的部分，去掉它主句意思往往不明确；非限制性定语从句是先行词的附加说明，去掉了也不会影响主句的意思，它与主句之间通常用逗号分开。例如：This is the house which we bought last month. 这是我们上个月买的那幢房子。（限制性）The house, which we bought last month, is very nice.这幢房子很漂亮，是我们上个月买的。（非限制性）2） 当先行词是专有名词或物主代词和指示代词所修饰时，其后的定语从句通常是非限制性的。例如：Charles Smith, who was my former teacher, retired last year. 查理?史密斯去年退休了，他曾经是我的老师。My house, which I bought last year, has got a lovely garden.我去年买的的那幢房子带着个漂亮的花园。This novel, which I have read three times, is very touching. 这本小说很动人，我已经读了三遍。3） 非限制性定语从句还能将整个主句作为先行词, 对其进行修饰, 这时从句谓语动词要用第三人称单数。例如：He seems not to have grasped what I meant, which greatly upsets me. 他似乎没抓住我的意思，这使我心烦。Liquid water changes to vapor, which is called evaporation. 液态水变为蒸汽，这就叫做蒸发。说明：关系代词that和关系副词why不能引导非限制性定语从句。V. 介词+关系词1）介词后面的关系词不能省略。2）that前不能有介词。3）某些在从句中充当时间，地点或原因状语的介词+关系词结构可以同关系副词when 和where 互换。例如： This is the house in which I lived two years ago. 这是我两年前住过的房子。 This is the house where I lived two years ago. Do you remember the day on which you joined our club? 还记得你加入我们俱乐部的那一天吗？ Do you remember the day when you joined our club?VI. as, which 非限定性定语从句由as, which 引导的非限定性定语从句，as和which可代整个主句，相当于and this或and that。As一般放在句首，which在句中。例如：As we know, smoking is harmful to ones health. 如我们所知，吸烟有害健康。The sun heats the earth, which is very important to us. 太阳使地球暖起来，这对我们人类很重要。典型例题1）Alice received an invitation from her boss, _came as a surprise.A. it B. that C. whichD. he 答案C. 此为非限定性从句，不能用 that修饰，而用which.，it 和he 都使后句成为句子，两个独立的句子不能单以逗号连接。况且选he句意不通。2）The weather turned out to be very good, _ was more than we could expect.A. whatB. whichC. thatD. it 答案B。which可代替句子，用于非限定性定语从句，而what不可。That 不能用于非限定性定语从句，it不为连词，使由逗号连接的两个句子并在一起在英语语法上行不通。3）It rained hard yesterday, _ prevented me from going to the park.A. thatB. whichC. as D. it 答案B. as 和which在引导非限制性定语从句时，这两个关系代词都指主句所表达的整个意思，且在定语从句中都可以作主语和宾语。但不同之处主要有两点：（1）as 引导的定语从句可置于句首，而which不可。（2） as 代表前面的整个主句并在从句中作主语时，从句中的谓语必须是系动词；若为行为动词，则从句中的关系代词只能用which.。在本题中，prevent由于是行为动词，所以正确选项应为B。VII. 先行词和关系词二合一1） Whoever spits in public will be punished here. （Whoever 可以用 anyone who 代替）2） The parents will use what they have to send their son to technical school.（what 可以用all that代替）VIII. what/whatever; that/what; who/whoever1）what = the thing which；whatever = anything。例如：What you want has been sent here. 你要的动词都送来了。Whatever you want makes no difference to me. 不管你要什么，跟我没什么关系。3） that 和 what当that引导定语从句时，通常用作关系代词，而引导名词性从句时，是个不充当任何成分的连接词。宾语从句和表语从句中的that常可省略。What只能引导名词性从句，用作连接代词，作从句的具体成分，且不能省略。例如：I think（that）you will like the stamps. 我想你会喜欢这些邮票的。What we need is more practice. 我们需要的是更多的实践。IX. 关系代词that 的用法1）不用that的情况 a） 引导非限定性定语从句时。 b） 介词后不能用。例如： We depend on the land from which we get our food. 我们依赖土地获得食物。 (一) which与that指物时可互相代替，但that比which更常见，尤其在口语中。但要注意that可用来指人，而which则不能指人。只能用that不能用which引导的定语从句：定语从句所修饰的词，同时又被形容词最高级修饰时，定语从句只能用that引导；This is the most interesting story (that) I have ever heard.定语从句所修饰的词，同时又被序数词修饰时，定语从句只能用that引导；The children like the second Lesson that is about “The Football March”.定语从句所修饰的词，同时又被the only，the very或the same修饰时，定语从句只能用that引导；1) It is the only word (that) I know in the passage.2) This is the same bicycle (that) I lost.定语从句修饰的词同时又被不定代词，如：all，any，no，every，little，many或much等修饰时，定语从句只能用that引导；Here is all the money (that) I have.定语从句修饰词为everything，something，anything，nothing，all，none，much，little，few等不定代词时，定语从句只能用that引导。但something前有the时，定语从句可由which引出。Here is something (that) I will tell you.I want everything (that) I want.定语从句修饰的词中同时含有“人”和“物”的名词时，定语从句只能用that引导：I can remember well the persons and some picture (that) I see in the room.定语从句修饰的词为one, ones时，定语从句用that引导：Is it the one (that) you want?当主句的主语是疑问词 who或 which来提问时，为了避免重复，用that引导定语从句：Who is the girl that won the first place?(二) who指人，that除指人外也指物，在从句中作主语或宾语。作宾语可省略，作主语不能省略。1) The girl who often helps me with my English is from England. （作主语，不可省略）2) The teacher who spoke at the meeting just now is having a rest in his office. （作主语，不可省略）3) The boy (who/ that) I like isnt here now. （作宾语，可省略）注 意:who与that指人时可互相代替，但下列情况只能用who不能用that引导的定语从句：先行词是one，ones，anyone时，定语从句只能用who引导；先行词为those时，定语从句只能用who引导；There be句型开头。另 注：(1) whom指人，为who的宾格形式,在句中只作宾语，其前没有介词时，也可用who替换使用，也可省略，如：Who is the teacher (that/ who/ whom) Yanzhen is talking to? （作宾语，可省略）Who is the teacher to whom Yanzhen is talking? （作宾语，介词to提到whom前，whom再此不可省略）(2) whose 指人，也可指物，在从句中作定语，不可省略。如：The building whose windows face to the south is our school. （作定语，不可省略）注意：1）在关系代词that，which，who，whom引导的定语从句中，只有当他们做定语从句的宾语时，才可以省略。2）关系代词在定语从句中做主语，动词单复数由其前的名词或代词决定。He who doesnt study hard wont pass the exam.3）因为关系代词或关系副词在定语从句中已充当一个成分，该从句中不能出现与它重复的成分。That is the only movie （that）Id like to see. (对)That is the only movie （that）Id like to see it. （错）宾语从句考察的三个要点：语序，时态，关联词。1.定义：用作宾语的从句叫宾语从句。2.构成：关联词+简单句。3宾语从句的语序一定是陈述句语序。（who 作主语的从句本身就是陈述句语序）4宾语从句在复合句中作主句的宾语，连接宾语从句的连词有that（that在口语中常省略）。 whether，if，和连接代词what， which， who， whom及连接副词when， where， how， why。He knew（that） he should study hard.他知道他应该努力学习。Can you tell me which class you are in？您能告诉我，您在哪一班吗？He asked me if he could come in，他问我他是否能进来。5.引导宾语从句的关联词有三类：（1）从属连词that.如：一般那情况下可以省略。He told us that he felt ill.注： that在引导宾语从句时也并不是任何情况下都可以省略。在以下情况下，that不能省略。1.Everybody could see what happened and that Tom was frightened.（and连接两个宾语从句，that宾语从句放在and的后面时，that不能省略。）2.I know nothing about him except that he is from the south.（that引导的宾语从句作介词宾语时，that不能省略。）3.That he ever said such a thing I simply dont believe.（that从句位于句首时，that不可省略。）我简直不相信他曾说过这样的话。（2）从属连词if/whether.如：I dont know if you can help me.（3）连接代词who，whom，whose，what，which，whoever，whatever，whichever连接副词 where，when，how，why.Who or what he was，Martin never learned.I wonder what hes writing to me about.注意1.如果宾语从句后还有宾语补足语，则用it作形式宾语，而将宾语从句后置。We thought it strange that Xiao Wang did not come yesterday.2.某些形容词或过去分词后常接宾语从句，这类形容词或过去分词有sure，glad，certain，pleased，happy，afraid，surprised，satisfied等，连词that可省略。 I am not sure what I ought to do.3.连词whether （or not）或if引导的宾语从句if和whether引导的宾语从句可以互换使用，但whether常和or not连用，if一般不与or not连用。如：I wonder whether it is true or not.我不知它是真是假。用if引导宾语从句如果会引起歧义，应避免使用if而用wheter.试比较：Please let me know if you want to go.Please let me know whether you want to go.if从句可理解为宾语从句，意为“请告诉我你是否想去”；此句又可理解为条件状语从句意为“如果你想去的话，请告诉我一声”。4.宾语从句的否定转移。在think，believe，suppose，expect等动词后的宾语从句，有时谓语尽管是否定意思，却不用否定形式，而将think等动词变为否定形式。如：I dont think you are right.I dont suppose he cares，does he？ 我想他不在意，是吗？5.宾语从句的时态变化规律：主句从句一般现在时可根据需要用任何时态。一般过去时过去的某种时态，例如：一般过去，过去进行，过去完成，过去将来等注意：说到自然现象和普遍真理时，用一般现在时The teacher said that the earth goes round the sun.3宾语从句应注意的问题1.时态的一致（主句的时态与从句的时态一致） a.宾语从句中如果主句是现在的时态（包括一般现在时、现在进行时、现在完成时），从句的时态可根据实际情况而定。b.宾语从句中如果主句是过去的时态（包括一般过去时、过去进行时），那么从句的时态一定要用过去的时态（包括一般过去时、过去进行时、过去将来时、过去完成时）。2.语序的变化a.陈述句变为宾语从句时，语序不变。b.一般疑问句变为宾语从句时语序要变为陈述句语序，用whether，if连接。一般疑问句：Does he study hard？他学习认真吗？宾语从句：I wonder if（whether）he studies hard.我不知道他是否认真学习。c.特殊疑问句变为宾语从句时语序要变为陈述句语序，用连接代词或副词（即保留原来的疑问词）。特殊疑问句：Who is he？他是谁？宾语从句：Do you know who he is？注意Who went there？（特殊疑问句）谁去那里呢？I wonder whowent there.（宾语从句）我不知道谁去那里。因为是对主语提问，所以特殊疑问句语序不变。变为宾语从句时，语序依然不变。特殊疑问句：When did he leave？他何时离开的？宾语从句：I know when he left.我知道他是什么时候离开的。特殊疑问句：Where will he arrive？他将会到哪里呢？宾语从句：He asked me where he would arrive.他问我他将会到哪里。状语从句在复合句中，修饰主句中的动词、形容词或副词等的从句叫状语从句。状语从句根据它表达的意思可分为时间、地点、原因、目的、结果、让步、比较（或方式）和条件等类。1.时间状语从句引导连词有when，while，till，notuntil，since，after ,before ,as soon asThe bus wont start until everybody gets on.公共汽车直到每人都上车为止，才开动。2. 地点状语从句 地点状语从句通常由where, wherever 引导。 Where there is a will, there is a way. 哪里有志向，哪里就有出路。有志者事竟成。3.原因状语从句引导连词有because，as, since。He didnt see the film because he had seen it.他没有看那部电影，因为他已经看过了。比较：because, since, as和for1）because语势最强，用来说明人所不知的原因，回答why提出的问题。当原因是显而易见的或已为人们所知，就用as或 since。 I didnt go, because I was afraid. Since /As the weather is so bad, we have to delay our journey.2）由because引导的从句如果放在句末，且前面有逗 号，则可以用for来代替。但如果不是说明直接原因，而是多种情况加以推断，就只能用for。 He is absent today, because / for he is ill. He must be ill, for he is absent today.注意because不能和so 连用。4. 目的状语从句引导连词有 that， so that，in order that。He must get up early so that he can catch the first bus.他必须早起，以便能赶上第一辆公共汽车。So that 以便/以致例如：(1)They studied hard so that they could pass the exam.注意点：在例句(1)中,是引导目的状语；在例句(2)中，是引导结果状语。一般来讲，从句中含有情态动词的，为目的状语。无情态动词的，为结果状语。5.结果状语从句引导连词有that，sothat，such.thatThe box is so heavy that I cant lift it.这个盒子如此沉，以致我无法抬起来。such+名词性词组+thatSo+形容词/副词+that如此以致例如：(1)She is such a good teacher that we all love her.注意点：1.such+a+形容词+名词+that，可以改写成：so+形容词+a+名词+that，例句(1)可以改写成：She is so good a teacher that we all love her.2.在such+形容词+名词复数或不可数名词+that结构中，形容词如果是many/few或much/little时，用so不用such，即：so+many/few+可数名词复数+that，so+much/little+不可数名词+that(1)There are so many people in the room that I cant get in.6.让步状语从句引导连词有though，although; even though/if; whatever; howeverAlthough he is young，he knows a lot of things.虽然他年龄小，但却认识许多事物。注意although，though不能和but连用。7.比较（方式）状语从句以than为引导连词。常见连词（as）as., than; the, theJim is older than Lucy（is）.吉姆比路希年长。注意than 引导的比较状语从句中的谓语常省略。8.条件状语从句以if, unless为引导连词。If you eat bad food，you may be ill.如果你吃到坏了的食物，就会生病。If it doesnt rain tomorrow, we will have a sports meet.直接引语和间接引语1定义：直接引语和间接引语：在陈述句中,直接引用说话人原来的语句,称为直接引语。在书写时,直接引语用引号。用自己的词语来转述表达原来说话人说的内容,称为间接引语。2、直接引语改变为间接引语：直接引语如果是陈述句,变为间接引语时应注意以下各点：不用引号,而用连接词that,但有时可省略。人称作相应变化；如：She said, “I went to see Mr. Liu yesterday.” 她说：“我昨天去看过刘老师了。”She said that she had gone to see Mr. Liu the day before. 她说那天她去看过刘老师了。时态的变化列表如下：直接引语间接引语一般现在时：“I am very glad to visit your workshop,” she said.“我很高兴参观你们的车间。”她说。一般过去时：She said that she was very glad to visit our workshop.她说她很高兴参观我们的车间。正在进行时：“I am checking your homework now,”his mother said.“我现在正在检查你的作业，”他母亲说。过去进行时：His mother said that she was checking his homework then.他母亲说她当时正在检查他的作业。现在完成时：“Have you handed in the money for the tickets?”the monitor asked. “你交票款了吗？”班长问。过去完成时：The monitor asked me if I had handed in the money for the tickets.班长问我是否交票款了。一般过去时：She said, “My mother took me to an exhibition yesterday.”她说，“我母亲昨天带我去看了展览。”过去完成时：She said that her mother had taken her to an exhibition the day before.她说她母亲前一天带她去看了展览。但是，要注意下面的情况：直接引语说的是科学真理、格言时，无论主句用何时态，间接引语仍用一般时。如：The teacher said, “The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.”老师说：“太阳在东方升起，在西边落下。”The teacher said that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west. 3、直接引语变为间接引语时,指示代词以及表示时间和地点的词或词组应作相应变化直接引语间接引语指示代词thisthatthesethose时间状语nowthentodaythat daythis morning(afternoon)that morning(afternoon)tonightthat nightyesterdaythe day beforelast nightthe night beforethe day before yesterdaytwo days beforethe day after tomorrowin two daysagobeforetomorrowthe next (following) daynext week(year)the next week (year)地点状语herethere方向性动词comegobringtake记忆方法：直接引语祈使句，变成间接引语的“顺口溜”是：去掉引号要加to；ask order须记住，直接引语是否定式，not加在to前部。对于人称变化，要求学生们记住的“顺口溜”是：第一人称看主语，第二人称看宾语，宾语若是不存在，活用代词I, me, my直接引语是特殊疑问句，变成间接引语的“顺口溜”是：直接去引号，陈述莫忘掉，小心助动词，丢它最重要。直接引语为一般疑问句，变成间接引语的“顺口溜”是：去掉引号加if，陈述语序要记住，时态人称和状语，小心变化别马虎。直接引语为陈述句，变成间接引语的“顺口溜”是：去掉引号加that4.直接引语可以变为间接引语，直接引语主要四种类型变化直接引语是陈述句时间接引语用that来引导。主句一般位于句首，其谓语动词通常是say, tellthink,repeat,answer,reply,explain，declare, whisper等。实际是主句中含宾语从句，一律必须跟一个宾格代词或表示人的名词，再跟that从句。1 “Im leaving for Beijingthe day after tomorrow,” he said to his son.他对他儿子说：“我后天要去北京了。”He told his son that he was leaving forBeijingin two days.2The interpreter said, “Ladies and gentlemen, the foreign guests arrived here yesterday.”译员说：“女士们，先生们，外国客人昨天到了。”The interpreter told the ladies and gentlemen that the foreigners had arrived there the day before.直接引语是疑问句时要先将主句的said或told改为asked，引语将疑问句语序改为陈述句语序，句末用逗号。一般疑问句时要将问句改为由if或whether引导的宾语从句1“Are they all in favor of open policy?” the president said to me.校长问我：“他们都赞成开放政策吗？”(直接引语)The president asked me whether(if) they were all in favor of the open policy. (间接引语)特殊疑问句时就用原来的疑问词作连词来引导宾语从句2. “Who will help me finish the job?” she asked.“谁愿意帮我完成这项工作？”她问道。（直接引语为特殊疑问句）She asked who would help her finish the job.(间接引语疑问代词who引导)选择疑问句时须用whether(不用if)or引导宾语从句。凡是疑问句的直接引语均不可用that来引导。3“Will you stay at school or go home this summer vacation, Tom?” said the Mary.玛丽问：“汤姆，今年暑假你留校还是回家？”(直接引语)Mary asked Tom whether he would stay at school or went home that summer vacation. (间接引语)直接引语是祈使句时1.多用“名词（代词）不定式”结构即主语+asked(advised)+sb.+(not) to do sth.”2.谓语动词用asked, told, advised,ordered, begged, commanded, warned.1“Copy down this sentence and keep it in mind, please.” said the old teacher. “把这个句子抄下来，并把它记住，”那位老师说。(直接引语)The old teacher told us to copy down that sentence and keep it in mind. (间接引语)2“Dont do that again, boys.” Said the old man.“别再做那种事，男孩子们，”那位长辈说。(直接引语)The old man advised the boys not to do that again. (间接引语)有些表示“提议，建议，要求，劝告”的祈使句，尤其是Let引导的祈使句，改为间接引语时可用suggest, insist, offer等动词或“should+动词原形”加以转述。如：3“Lets have a cup of milk.” said the young man. “我们饮杯牛奶吧!”这位年轻人说。(直接引语)The young man suggested having a cup of milk. (间接引语)=The young man suggested that we should have a cup of milk. (间接引语)直接引语是感叹句可用what或how引导，也可用that引导。“What a lovely day it is today!” said the visitor.“今天天气多好啊!”游客说。(直接引语)The visitor said what a lovely day it was that day. (间接引语)The visitor said that it was a lovely day that day. (间接引语)14.1 倒装句之全部倒装全部倒装是只将句子中的谓语动词全部置于主语之前。此结构通常只用与一般现在时和一般过去时。常见的结构有：1) here, there, now, then, thus等副词置于句首, 谓语动词常用be, come, go, lie, run。 There goes the bell. Then came the chairman. Here is your letter.2) 表示运动方向的副词或地点状语置于句首，谓语表示运动的动词。Out rushed a missile from under the bomber.Ahead sat an old woman.注意：上述全部倒装的句型结构的主语必须是名词，如果主语是人称代词则不能完全倒装。 Here he comes. Away they went.倒装句之部分倒装 部分倒装是指将谓语的一部分如助动词或情态倒装至主语之前。如果句中的谓语没有助动词或情态动词，则需添加助动词do, does或did，并将其置于主语之前。1)句首为否定或半否定的词语，如no, not, never, seldom, little, hardly, at no time, in no way, not until 等。Never have I seen such a performance.Nowhere will you find the answer to this question.Not until the child fell asleep did the mother leave the room.当Not until引出主从复合句，主句倒装，从句不倒装。注意： 如否定词不在句首不倒装。 I have never seen such a performance. The mother didnt leave the room until the child fell asleep.典型例题1)Why cant I smoke here?At no time_ in the meeting-roomA. is smoking permittedB.smoking is permittedC. smoking is it permittedD.does smoking permit答案A. 这是一个倒装问题。当否定词语置于句首以表示强调时，其句中的主谓须用倒装结构。 这些否定词包括no, little, hardly, seldom, never, not only, not until等。本题的正常语序是 Smoking is permitted in the meeting-room at no time.2） Not until the early years of the 19th century