农业中的气候变化和有效的水管理外文文献

ARTICLE IN PRESS JID ECOHYD m3Gdc January 7 2020 8 50 Ecohydrology this is especially true for large and medium sized agricultural enterprises However the farmers still have not realized that their individual decisions reduce the economic effi ciency of their production but that they also negatively impact ecosystems hydrology and other economic entities whose activity depends on the quality of the water resource 2019 European Regional Centre for Ecohydrology of the Polish Academy of Sciences Published by Elsevier B V All rights reserved 1 Introduction By 2050 land use will have to supply 60 more food than today to feed a growing population It must do it in a way that does not harm the soil water biodiver sity ecosystem services or the climate upon which hu man well being and development depend However cur rent land use mainly agriculture and deforestation is responsible for around 25 of man made global green house gas GHG emissions OECD 2009 E mail address dorota michalak uni lodz pl The global increase in the demand for food Lal 2013 and the related increase in agricultural production has led to an increase in land area the stocking density per hectare and the use of artifi cial fertilizers It has also re sulted in the depletion of soil and organic matter and the over exploitation of water resources These processes have led to an increase in pollution from agriculture which negatively affects the quality of surface underground and coastal waters Izydorczyk et al 2018 On the other hand the changing climate and the con sequences in the form of water shortages may have a signifi cant impact on the economics of agriculture This short preliminary list of connections between agriculture https doi org 10 1016 j ecohyd 2019 12 004 1642 3593 2019 European Regional Centre for Ecohydrology of the Polish Academy of Sciences Published by Elsevier B V All rights reserved Please cite this article as D Michalak Adapting to climate change and effective water management in Polish agriculture At the level of government institutions and farms Ecohydrology January 7 2020 8 50 and hydrological circle indicates the mutual dependence of these two areas Ecohydrology is based on integrating our understand ing of ecological and hydrological processes to improve sustainability Zalewski 2014 Proper management of the water resources in agricultural land and taking appropri ate action or avoiding inappropriate activities in this area might not only reduce anthropogenic stress but it should also have a positive effect on the economy and the envi ronmental status of agriculture In connection with the above the management of wa ter resources on a macro level government regulations support for government institutions and the micro level activities undertaken by farmers themselves is extremely important This article is the result of my own original research Its originality is that it combines issues of economics cli mate change water management of the agricultural indus try and ecohydrology in a comprehensive way both at the level of the institution and the single farm in Poland Its main purpose is to determine whether the regulations and actions of Polish government institutions support agricul tural holdings in effective water management It also in tends to show how farmers cope with water management challenges resulting from climate change This is the fi rst study on this subject for Poland Poland is located in a temperate climate It transitions from a continental climate in the east to a sea climate in the west The annual amount of rainfall is one of the low est in northern Europe in some places equal to the minima of southern Europe During the vegetation period there is a negative water balance in Poland i e evaporation pre vails over atmospheric precipitation therefore crops must be based on the water accumulated in the soil during the cold rainy period between autumn and spring Internet D Water availability for plants is determined not only by the amount of atmospheric precipitation but also by evap oration The difference between atmospheric precipitation and potential evaporation is described by the value of the Climate Water Balance CWB According to this in dicator the largest water shortages occur in the region of Wielkopolska and the smallest in the south of Poland In the Wielkopolska region from April to September the CWB has negative values of up to 250 mm This means that during this whole period the amount of water that can potentially evaporate from the soil plant system is greater than the amount of atmospheric precipitation This is disadvantageous for plants because they are exposed to periodic water shortages throughout the vegetation period Internet G The dry periods observed in the fi rst decade of the 21st century in the summer meant that farmers increasingly resort to irrigating crops In areas notoriously affected by drought farmers more and more often change the pro fi le of production moving from cereals to crops which it would be more profi table to irrigate e g vegetables berry shrubs and orchards In the period from August 1 to September 30 2019 the weather conditions caused a large defi cit of water for plants in western Poland resulting in agricultural drought among crops In the sixty day period the number of mu nicipalities covered by drought decreased from 1700 to 412 in relation to the previous period June 1 to July 30 However the actual drought area decreased by 51 97 percentage points The water defi cit means a decrease in yields in the communes by at least 20 compared to yields obtained in average weather conditions The highest risk of agricultural drought occurred among rape turnip rape and sugar beet crops During this period adverse weather conditions caus ing drought were recorded in a large number of com munes in the following provinces Wielkopolskie Greater Poland Zachodniopomorskie West Pomeranian Lubuskie Lubusz Opolskie Opole Dolno sl askie Lower Silesian and Kujawsko Pomorskie Kuyavian Pomeranian Internet H 2 Research methods The following research tools were used to identify adaptation measures to climate change in Polish agricul ture from the micro to the macroeconomic level Desk research a research method that involves an alyzing records of available data sources it includes compiling verifying and processing the data Such analysis is the basis for working out conclusions about the studied problem Existing data was analyzed and a review of the literature and legal acts was conducted study period 2018 and updates June August 2019 Bednarowska 2015 Case study a method of qualitative research it is a description of the studied phenomenon and it ana lyzes and assesses the phenomenon as it occurs in re ality Case studies are used for descriptive research top ics It answers the question of what where and how something happened In relation to exploratory prob lems it will answer the question why did the stud ied phenomenon occur study period January 2018 Grzegorczyk 2015 Quantitative research a social research method in which a standardized questionnaire is used to collect information from respondents The survey was con ducted among two groups of respondents selected gov ernment institutions and farms A description of the in dividual groups of respondents is presented along with the results of the survey study period the fi rst half of 2018 Sztumski 1995 The case study of Poland is the starting point to analyze other states 3 Polish legal regulations on water management On January 1 2018 a new Water Law was introduced in Poland that introduced major legal and organizational changes as well as a new structure of bodies responsible for water management and environmental protection The initial principles of the Law provide effective management of water resources in line with the paradigm of sustain able development The reform includes a planning system the granting of water and legal permits new structures Please cite this article as D Michalak Adapting to climate change and effective water management in Polish agriculture At the level of government institutions and farms Ecohydrology January 7 2020 8 50 and new tasks for the bodies responsible for water man agement It also introduces new regulations on fees for the use of water services The fees will be directly charged to people who use the resource In addition the legislator in troduced a requirement for separate measurements of col lected groundwater and surface water and a separate mea surement of waters used for various purposes Journal of Laws Water Law Articles 18 29 Pursuant to the new law State Water Management re ferred to as Polish Waters will manage a signifi cant part of the State Treasury s assets and be the administrative body with competences It will be independently fi nanced with the above mentioned charges as the main source of in come The Minister of the Environment directly supervises the activities of Polish Waters The State Water Manage ment Council was established as an opinion and advisory body to the minister Journal of Laws Water Law Articles 29 40 The basic planning documents required by the provi sions of the Water Framework Directive and the new Wa ter Law are the National Water and Environmental Pro gram NWMP and the Water Management Plans WMPs for river basins The national water and environmental pro gram defi nes basic and complementary activities aimed at improving or maintaining good water status and its sum mary is a key element of water management plans for river basins The provisions of the Directive require the develop ment of WMPs in the river basin areas that exist in a given country Internet A Flood Risk Management Plans FRMPs are the main tool for achieving the objectives of the Floods Directive of the European Parliament The main objective of the Plans is to reduce the potential negative effects of fl ooding on human life and health the environment cultural heritage and economic activity by implementing measures to mini mize identifi ed risks While working on the FRMPs sources of excessive fl ood risk were identifi ed as the main problem related to fl ood risk management Internet F Other tools that implement the Floods Directive involve fl ood hazard maps FHMs and fl ood risk maps FRMs FHMs show areas where fl ooding is likely to occur and ar eas that are exposed to fl ooding as well as water depths water fl ow velocity and water fl ow directions The infor mation contained in the maps makes it possible to adapt the type of river valley and coastal urban area devel opment to the hazard level minimizing potential losses Internet E The important program related to the water manage ment in Poland is Developing plans to counteract the effects of drought in river basin areas Stop drought whose main objective is to draw up a plan to counter act the effects of drought taking into account the divi sion of the country into river basins The plan to counteract the effects of drought in the water region includes analyz ing the possibilities of expanding available water resources proposals for the construction extension or reconstruction of water facilities proposals for necessary changes in the use of water resources and changes in natural and artifi cial retention and a catalog of actions to reduce the effects of drought Journal of Laws Water Law Article 92 para 3 point 6b Within the Plans areas threatened by drought in particular river basin areas will be identifi ed and pri oritized and drought protection needs will be assessed A set of measures will also be developed to prevent and mit igate the effects of drought on the economy society and the environment The deadline for implementation is 2020 Internet B The National Program for the Protection of Sea Waters NPPSW is Poland s program concerning the protection of marine waters Its main goal is to determine the opti mal set of activities that will make it possible to achieve good environmental status of marine waters As part of the strategic environmental impact assessment procedure draft plans and programs which can potentially have a signifi cant impact on the environment including peo ple valuable species and habitats are subject to an as sessment of the risk of them having a signifi cant trans boundary impact on the environment Internet C 4 Case study The essence of the problem discussed i e farmers lack of knowledge and awareness of the negative impact of their activities on the environment translates into the quality of the soil and consequently into the economic ef fi ciency of agricultural production Fig 1 illustrates the loss of organic matter and nutrients from a completely agricul tural landscape with degraded land water ecotones Cen tral Poland Pilica River Catchment Carbon phosphorus and nitrogen are the basic components of the biosphere The reduction of organic carbon in soil and the decline in biomass in catchments due to deforestation increase runoff and also wind and water erosion thus reducing soil fer tility The left side of Fig 1 demonstrates how the loss of organic mineral matter and fertilizers OMMF due to wind erosion contributes to the transfer of OMMF down the slope due to the uniformity of the landscape OMMF is then transferred through the degraded land water eco tone into the river and fi nally along the river continuum to reservoirs marine coastal zones and deep sea sediments In consequence the resilience of human modifi ed ecosys tems of anthropogenic landscapes to climate change falls sharply Zalewski 2014 The case study looks at the Pilica River in Central Poland and the loss of organic matter and nutrients from a completely agricultural landscape It indicates the nega tive consequences of individual farmers decisions which result from a lack of awareness lack of support and in terference from supporting Government institutions or im perfect channels of information fl ow between science and business The example of farmers lack of knowledge lead ing to decisions that negatively affect production was the starting point for analyzing adaptation activities to climate change which are related to water management from the macro to microeconomic level 5 Results the macroeconomic level In order to identify climate change adaptation mea sures related to water management in the Polish agricul tural industry that have been undertaken by state budget institutions a survey was conducted among fi ve groups of Please cite this article as D Michalak Adapting to climate change and effective water management in Polish agriculture At the level of government institutions and farms Ecohydrology January 7 2020 8 50 Fig 1 The loss of organic matter and nutrients from a completely agricultural landscape with degraded land water ecotones Central Poland Pilica River Catchment Source Zalewski 2014 entities i e Agricultural Advisory Centers and Depart ments AACs and AADs Agriculture Rural and Envi ronmental Protection Departments of the Marshal Of fi ces MOs Regional Water Management Boards RWMBs provincial Agricultural Chambers and central and provin cial Agencies for Restructuring and Modernizing Agricul ture ARMAs They are the most important Polish insti tutions related to the agriculture and water management of the country A questionnaire was sent to 79 entities In order to ensure a high return rate the questionnaire was sent ten times and it was supported by a telephone survey The identifi cation of the research sample was pre ceded by consultations with the Ministry of the Environ ment Although this did not help with the implementation of the survey at the beginning of the research it did pro vide signifi cant insights e g the lack of order within the regulations and the scope of responsibilities of individual institutions in the fi eld of adaptation to climate change including the effective management of water resources in agriculture Completed questionnaires were returned by 59 entities i e the response rate was 74 7 Among these entities the main group consisted of AADs 18 entities which is 100 of those surveyed followed by 13 MOs 81 25 10 RWMBs 90 1 10 Agricultural Chambers 62 5 and six ARMAs 35 3 Twenty entities i e 33 9 of respondents returned an empty questionnaire declaring that they do not conduct such activities This lack of activity was indi cated by one AAC 5 of the questionnaires received from AACs fi ve MOs 38 5 fi ve RWMBs 50 fi ve Cham bers 50 and four ARMAs 67 The ARMAs were the least willing to participate in the survey and although they were included in the survey their share in the survey re sults is negligible One of the objectives of the survey was to assess the ease of access to information on the subject of climate change and water management Along with a question about the assessment of the effectiveness of information fl ow channels the respondents were asked about access to information on the impact of climate change on the hy drological situation of the country Only ten of them 17 declared they had easy and systematic access to informa tion on the impact of climate change on the hydrological situation of the country including fi ve AADs three RWMBs one MO and one Chamber Symposia seminars and conferences were the most frequently used channels of information fl ow on climate change 34 of responses The next most frequently quoted response was data ob tained by chance when discussing other topics 26 and reports and analyses 21 The response Sharing main conclusions and recommendations accounted for 11 of responses and Partial information sent via e mail or during a telephone conversation for 8 Nobody marked the response Cyclical meetings on climate change In this question it was possible to indicate any number of answers Among the adaptation solutions applied the most fre quently indicated responses were Education in the fi eld of saving water resources in agricultural production 13 indications which accounted for 22 of responses Pro motion or help in introducing drought resistant vege