语言学第六章chapterppt课件.ppt

Chapter6Pragmatics 6 1Introduction6 1 1Background6 1 2Definition6 2Micropragmatics6 2 1Reference 指称 6 2 2Dexis 指示 6 2 3Anaphora 照应 6 2 4Presupposition 预设 6 3Macropragmatics6 3 1Speechacttheory 言语行为理论 6 3 2TheCooperativePrinciple 合作原则 6 3 3ThePolitenessPrinciple 礼貌原则 6 1Introduction Whenadiplomatsaysyes hemeans perhaps Whenhesaysperhaps hemeans no Whenhesaysno heisnotadiplomat Whenaladysaysno shemeans perhaps Whenshesaysperhaps shemeans yes Whenshesaysyes sheisnotalady Voltaire Quoted inSpanish inEscandell1993 speaker smeaning languageinuse Amelamed m l m d 小学教师 Hebrewteacher discoveringthathehadlefthiscomfortableslippersbackinthehouse sentastudentafterthemwithanoteforhiswife Thenotereads Sendmeyourslipperswiththisboy Whenthestudentaskedwhyhehadwritten your slippers themelamedanswered Yold Fool IfIwrote my slippers shewouldread myslippersandwouldsendherslippers WhatcouldIdowithherslippers SoIwrote your slippers she llread yourslippersandsendmemine Backgroundof Pragmatics CharlesMorris 1903 1979 wasconcernedwiththestudyofthescienceofsigns whichhecalledsemiotic Hedistinguished3branchesofsemiotics 符号三分法 Syntaxaddressestheformalrelationsofsignstooneanother semanticstherelationofsignstowhattheydenote andpragmaticstherelationofsignstotheirusersandinterpreters Pragmaticsisthestudyoftherelationshipsbetweenlinguisticformsandtheusersofthoseforms Inthisthree partdistinction onlypragmaticsallowshumansintotheanalysis Definitions 1 Pragmaticsisthestudyofspeaker smeaning 2 Pragmaticsisthestudyofcontextualmeaning 3 Pragmaticsisthestudyofhowmoregetscommunicatedthanissaid 4 Pragmaticsisthestudyoftheexpressionofrelativedistance Yule 2008 Pragmaticsisastudyoflanguageinuse 6 2Micropramatics Iwaswaitingforthebus buthejustdrovebywithoutstopping Tostudythemeaningofsuchpiecesoflanguageinsmallercontextsiscalledmicropragmatics Phenomenasuchasreference deixis anaphora andpresupposition arethetopicsinthisfield 6 2 1Reference Inthereferentialtheory namingtheory itisassumedthatthewordsweusetoidentifythingsareinsomedirectrelationshiptothosethings 1 a CanIlookatyourShakespeare b Sure it sontheshelfoverthere usenamesofpeopletorefertothings Thekeyprocesshereiscalledinference Aninferenceisanyadditionalinformationusedbythehearertoconnectwhatissaidtowhatmustbemeant Inpragmatics theactbywhichaspeakerorwriteruseslanguagetoenableahearerorreadertoidentifysomethingiscalledreference 6 2 2Deixis Deixis 指示 whichmeans pointing vialanguage theinterpretationofmanywordsandexpressionsbyreferencetothesituationalcontextoftheutterance Anylinguisticformusedtodothis pointing iscalledadeicticexpression orindexical InEnglish wordslikehere there this that now andthen aswellasmostpronouns suchasI we you he her them 2 You llhavetobringthatbacktomorrow becausetheyaren therenow Fivetypesofdeixis1 Persondeixis me you him them 2 Timedeixis now then tonight lastweek 3 Space spatial placedeixis here there andyonder 4 Discoursedeixis temporal spatialintheprevious nextparagraph orHaveyouheardthisjoke inthischapter 5 Socialdeixis honorifics 敬语 ProfessorLi kinshiprelationship LiJie 李姐 inChinese Amelamed 小学教师 Hebrewteacher discoveringthathehadlefthiscomfortableslippersbackinthehouse sentastudentafterthemwithanoteforhiswife Thenotereads Sendmeyourslipperswiththisboy Whenthestudentaskedwhyhehadwritten your slippers themelamedanswered Yold Fool IfIwrote my slippers shewouldread myslippersandwouldsendherslippers WhatcouldIdowithherslippers SoIwrote your slippers she llread yourslippersandsendmemine Anaphora 照应 iscoreferenceofoneexpressionwithitsantecedent Theantecedentprovidestheinformationnecessaryfortheexpression sinterpretation Thisisoftenunderstoodasanexpression referring backtotheantecedent 6 2 3Anaphora 3 A CanIborrowyourdictionary B Yeah it sonthetable antecedent anaphororanaphoricexpression indirectanaphororbridgingreference 4 Iwalkedintotheroom Thewindowslookedouttothebay 6 2 4Presupposition Presupposition 预设 Theinformationthataspeakerassumestobealreadyknown TheCambridgeEncyclopaediaofLanguage 1987 5 Susan ssisterboughttwohouses ThissentencepresupposesthatSusanexistsandthatshehasasister Inanylanguage therearesomeexpressionsorconstructionswhichcanactasthesourcesofpresuppositions Thiskindofexpressionsorconstructionsiscalledpresupposition triggers presupposition triggers 预设触发语 for presupposes A Definitivedescriptions 限定性描述 6 Johnsaw didn tseethemanwithtwoheads Thereexistsamanwithtwoheads B Factiveverbs 叙述动词 7 Johnrealized didn trealizethathewasindebt Johnwasindebt C Changeofstateverbs 状态改变类动词 8 Joanbegan didn tbegintobeatherhusband Joanhadn tbeenbeatingherhusband D Iteratives 重复 9 Theflyingsaucercame didn tcomeagain Theflyingsaucercamebefore E Temporalclauses 时间小句 10 WhileChomskywasrevolutionizinglinguistics therestofsocialsciencewas wasn tasleep Chomskywasrevolutionizinglinguistics F Cleftsentences 分裂句 11 Itwas wasn tHenrythatkissedRosie SomeonekissedRosie G Comparisonsandcontrasts 比较与对比 12 Carolis isn tabetterlinguistthanBarbara Barbaraisalinguist 6 3Macropragmatics Moreoftenthannot wedon tconfineourstudytoindividualutterances butextendouranalysistolargerpiecesoflanguage forthesimplereasonthatlanguageuseisanintricateprocess Theresearchontheanalysesoflargerchunksoflanguage suchasawholeconversation anarticleorevenachapterofanoveloroneactofaplayintheuserinteractionconcerningthemechanismsbywhichspeakers writersencodetheirmessageinskilfulwaysandhowhearers readersarriveattheintendedmeaningsinspiteofthedifferencesbetweentheliteralmeaningandtheintendedmeaningiscalledmacropragmatics Differenttheoriesinmacropragmatics Speechacttheory 言语行为理论 TheCooperativePrinciple 合作原则 ThePolitenessPrinciple 礼貌原则 Philosophers intheirsearchforanswerstotheirphilosophicalpuzzles turnedtolanguagestudies Theycameupwithseveralapproachestohowlanguageisusedandhowcertainproblemsseemtobeexplainedbylanguageinuse Theyoftenrefertotheseapproachesasphilosophyoflanguagebutlinguistsprefertocallitpragmatics macropragmatics 6 3 1Speechacttheory SpeechacttheorywasproposedbyJ L AustinandhasbeendevelopedbyJ R Searle Basically theybelievethatlanguageisnotonlyusedtoinformortodescribethings itisoftenusedto dothings toperformacts Speechacts actionsperformedviautterances 13 Youarefired J L AustinPerformativesandConstativesTrichotomyofSA 三分法 Illocutionaryact 言外行为 1 PerformativesandConstatives 施为语 做事 陈述语 陈说 Iannounceyouhusbandandwife Ibetyoutendollarsitwillraintomorrow Ideclarethemeetingopen Ineedthesalt Constatives sentencesthatareusedtostateordescribethings Performatives sentencesthatareusedtodothings Thiskindofsentencescannotbetrueorfalse Itisarguedthatevennon performativesentencesareusedtoperformacts 14 It ssuchafinedaytoday suggestinganouting Soitisclaimedthatallsentences inadditiontowhatevertheymean performspecificactionsor dothings throughspecificforces 2 Threetypesofspeechacts Afterrejectingthedistinctionbetweenperformativesandconstatives Austinputforwardhisnewmodel aspeakerwhileproducinganutteranceisinmostcasesperformingthreeactssimultaneously Canyoutellthedifferentspeechactsperformedintheutterances 练习题 15 Ibelieveheisinnocent 16 Getoutofhere 17 Nexttime I llarriveontime 18 I msorryforthetroubleIbroughttoyou 19 Iannounceyouhusbandandwife Infact wemightutterittomakeastatement arequest anexplanation orforsomeothercommunicativepurposes Thisisalsogenerallyknownastheillocutionaryforceoftheutterance Buthowdopeopleknowwhichspeechactisintended Apossibleansweristospecifyfelicityconditions circumstancesunderwhichitwouldbeappropriatetointerpretsomethingasaparticulartypeofspeechact Forexample ifagenuineorderhasbeengiven thehearermustbephysicallycapableofcarryingitout Getmeastar isnot andmustbeabletoidentifytheobjectinvolved Theliteralmeaningistakencareofbysemanticsandtheeffectofanutteranceissubjecttomanyfactors includingsocialpsychology morethanlinguisticscancopewith So whatspeechacttheoryismostconcernedwithisillocutionaryact Itattemptstoaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmorethanwhattheysay Itisalsodesignedtoshowcoherenceinseeminglyincoherentconversations 20 a Husband That sthephone b Wife I minthebathroom illocutionaryact c Husband Okay 3 Classificationofillocutionaryacts J R Searle suggestsfivebasiccategoriesofillocutionaryacts 4 Indirectspeechacts Adifferentapproachtodistinguishingtypesofspeechactscanbemadeonthebasisofthethreebasicsentencestypes 21 a declarative Youwearaseatbelt statement b interrogative Doyouwearaseatbelt question c imperative Wearaseatbelt command request Wheneverthereisadirectrelationshipbetweenastructureandafunction wehaveadirectspeechact Adeclarativeusedtomakeastatementisadirectspeechact butadeclarativeusedtomakearequestisanindirectspeechact Forexample 22 It scoldoutside a Iherebytellyouabouttheweather statement directspeechact b Iherebyrequestofyouthatyouclosethedoor request command indirectspeechact 23 Youdon twanttheaddresseetostandinfrontoftheTV Whatwillyousay 练习题a Moveoutoftheway b DoyouhavetostandinfrontoftheTV c Ican tseethescreen d It sharmfultoyoureyes Requestsareoftenperformedindirectly Whydopeopletendtouseindirectspeechactsindailycommunication Toensureasuccessfulcommunication collaborationisanecessaryfactor Inmuchoftheprecedingdiscussion wehaveassumedthatspeakersandlistenersinvolvedinconversationsaregenerallycooperatingwitheachother Forexample inacceptingspeakers presuppositions listenersnormallyhavetoassumethataspeakerwhosays mycar reallydoeshavethecarthatismentionedandisn ttryingtomisleadthelistener 6 3 2Thecooperativeprinciple 1 TheCooperativePrinciple p 154 H P Grice 1975 suggeststhatthereisasetofassumptionsguidingtheconductofconversation TheCooperativePrinciple CP Thecooperativeprincipleisstatedinthefollowingway Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired atthestageatwhichitoccurs bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged Simply CPmeansweshouldsaywhatistrueinaclearandrelevantmanner 2 Themaxims A Themaximofquantity1 Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange 2 Donnotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired B ThemaximofqualityTrytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue 1 Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse 2 Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence C ThemaximofrelationMakesurethatwhateveryousayisrelevanttotheconversationathand D ThemaximofmannerBeperspicuous 1 Avoidobscurityofexpression 2 Avoidambiguity 3 Bebrief avoidunnecessaryprolixity 4 Beorderly Examples 24 Husband Wherearethecarkeys Wife They reonthetableinthehall Inthemiddleoftheirlunchhour onewomanasksanotherhowshelikesthehamburgersheiseating andreceivestheanswerin 25 Ahamburgerisahamburger quantity Doyouthinkthisutteranceiscooperative Whatcanyouinferredfromthesentence 3 Conversationalimplicature会话涵义 AccordingtoGrice utteranceinterpretationisnotamatterofdecodingmessages butratherinvolves i takingthemeaningofthesentencestogetherwithcontextualinformation ii usinginferencerules and iii workingoutwhatthespeakermeansonthebasisoftheassumptionthattheutteranceconformstothemaxims ThemainadvantageofthisapproachfromGrice spointofviewisthatitprovidesapragmaticexplanationforawiderangeofphenomena especiallyforconversationalimplicatures akindofextrameaningthatisnotliterallycontainedintheutterance However inactualspeechcommunication itisoftenthecasethatspeakerscannotordonotobservetheCPanditsmaxims 26 Heisatiger 27 Tomhaswoodenears Metaphorsandironyarestandardexamplesofthefloutingofthemaximofquality 违反质准则 Violationofthemaximofquantitybyprovidinglessormoreinformationthanisrequired 违反量准则 28 Girlsaregirls tautology 29 I mAlexfromLeeds 26 unmarried In 28 thehearerwouldinferfromthespecificcontextthatthespeakerprobablymeanthatgirlsarecareful thoughtful andconsiderateorliketotalkaboutshoppingandfashion Ifamanintroduceshimselftoagirlataparty asin 29 hewouldmakethegirlsuspiciousofhismotive Themaximsofrelationandmannercanalsonotbeobserved 违反关系 方式准则 30 A I moutofpetrol B Thereisgarageroundthecorner 31 A Shallwegetsomethingforthekids B Yes ButIvetoI C E C R E A M p157 6 3 3Thepolitenessprinciple PP 32 Youdon twanttheaddresseetostandinfrontoftheTV Whatwillyousay 练习题 a Moveoutoftheway b DoyouhavetostandinfrontoftheTV c Ican tseethescreen d It sharmfultoyoureyes Requestsareoftenperformedindirectly Whydopeopletendtouseindirectspeechactsindailycommunication 合作原则只说明了交际者有意违反合作原则及其准则可以获得特殊的会话涵义 但是 却并未解释交际双方为什么要这样说话 Inmostcases theindirectnessismotivatedbyconsiderationsofpoliteness Politenessisusuallyregardedbymostpragmatistsasameansorstrategywhichisusedbyaspeakertoachievevariouspurposes suchassavingface establishingandmaintainingharmonioussocialrelationsinconversation Leech 1983 80 looksonpolitenessascrucialinaccountingfor whypeopleareoftensoindirectinconveyingwhattheymean HethusthePolitenessPrinciple FollowingGrice spresentationoftheCP LeechputsforwardsixmaximsofthePolitenessPrinciple Minimize otherthingsbeingequal theexpressionofimpolitebeliefsandmaximize otherthingsbeingequal theexpressionofpolitebeliefs MaximofTact得体 策略准则 indirectivesandcommissives i Minimizecosttoother使他人受损最下 ii Maximizebenefittoother使他人受惠最大 33 Travelandexpenseswillbepaidforand ifyouwish youcouldalsogiveaplenarypaper 会议邀请函 MaximofGenerosity慷慨准则 indirectivesandcommissives i Minimizebenefittoself ii Maximizecosttoself 34 Theidealthingwouldbetodoatelnetchat ifitweretobepossible Butsinceyouareathome That sapromise 为对方代劳工作 MaximofApprobation赞扬准则 inexpressivesandassertives i Minimizedispraiseofother ii Maximizepraiseofother 35 Goodtohearfromyou I vejusthadaquicklookatyourwebpages Looksgood MaximofModesty谦虚准则 inexpressivesandassertives i Minimizepraiseofself ii MaximizedispraiseofselfThemaximofmodestyaccountsforthebenignnatureofutteranceslike 36 andtheoffensivenatureof 37 36 Howstupidofme 37 Howcleverofme MaximofAgreement一致准则 inassertives i Minimizedisagreementbetweenselfandother ii MaximizeagreementbetweenselfandotherRegulatedbythemaximofagreement peopletendtoexaggeratetheircommongroundfirst evenwhenmuchdifferenceistofollow 38 A Thebookisverywellwritten B Yes wellwrittenasawhole buttherearesomeratherboringpatches don tyouthink Ifexpressingdisagreementisinevitable thenspeakersattempttosoftenitinvariousways byexpressingregretatthedisagreement e g 39 I msorry butIcan tagreewithyou Inthisexample theuseofthewordcan tseemstoimplythatthespeakerwouldliketoagree Speakersmayevenshowreluctancetospeakatallwhentheyknowtheywillbedisagreeing theyuseexpressionssuchaswellatthebeginningoftheirutterancesorthey humandhaw MaximofSympathy同情准则 inassertives i Minimizeantipathybetweenselfandother ii MaximizesympathybetweenselfandotherTheMaximofSympathyhassucharegulativeforcethatweinvariablyinterpret 40 asacongratulationand 41 asacondolence 40 I