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Design and control of robot manipulator with a distributed actuationmechanismSung-Hwan Kim, Young June Shin, Kyung-Soo Kim, Soohyun KimDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, KAIST, 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-701, Republic of Koreaa r t i c l ei n f oArticle history:Received 24 February 2014Accepted 29 September 2014Available online 19 October 2014Keywords:Distributed actuation mechanismRobot manipulatorRobot armHigh payloadsLight weight arma b s t r a c tThis paper presents a design methodology based on the distributed actuation principle to achieve a high-performance robot manipulator. Spatial movement of the actuation points provides several advantagessuch as high payload capacity, high efficiency and a light weight structure for the proposed robot manip-ulator. Based on the analysis, the distributed actuation mechanism using a single slider is adopted for theproposed manipulator. A prototype of the manipulator with two degrees of freedom is developed andcontrolled as an example. The efficacy of the proposed approach is verified experimentally.? 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.1. IntroductionRobot manipulators generally employ high capacity actuators toenhance various performance characteristics such as payload andspeed of movement. However, in practice, the actuators and thespeed reducers often lead to heavy and bulky manipulators, and,so thus, there exists an inevitable trade-off between the desiresfor high performance and compact design.To resolve these conflicting design goals, there have been vari-ous approaches. The use of high-capacity motors is advantageousin increasing the performance of conventional manipulators withless structural changes 13. Hydraulic actuators are useful togenerate large torques 47. A liquid cooling system of electricmotors effectively enhances the peak torque in short-time opera-tion 8. Moreover, the parallel manipulator is often used in theapplications requiring high structural rigidity and dynamic capa-bilities 912. In addition, the manipulator structure optimizationmay be needed to minimize the weight of robot, reduce the actua-tor power requirements, and decrease the space needed for therobotic systems 912. A low-weight robot arm was recently pro-posed in 13 and is known to be one of the most efficient designs.The mechanical structure and motors of the robot arm were opti-mized, which results in a load-to-weight ratio of 1, a total systemweight of less than 15 kg, and a workspace of 1.5 m.The manipulators in the aforementioned studies utilize a jointactuation topology under which rotary actuators are placed atthe joints of adjacent manipulator links 1423. This joint-actua-tion mechanism is advantageous in terms of the simplicity of thestructure and the ease of control. However, it suffers from the needfor heavy mechanical components to bear the concentrated load atthe joints. In other words, gears or harmonic drives should be usedfor speed reduction and torque enhancement, which leads to heavymanipulators in practice. Moreover, gears with high-speed reduc-tion ratios inevitably decrease the efficiency of a manipulator.Motivated by these difficulties, we adopt the distributed actu-ation mechanism proposed in 24 to obtain a light but highly effi-cient manipulator design. The distributed actuation principlespatially optimizes the locations of forcing points along with linksfor maximizing the fingertip force 24. Because the location ofactuating points can be changed, the output force of the robot fin-ger can be further enhanced at their optimal locations. The feasi-bility of the distributed actuation principle was validated for atiny robot finger actuated by ultrasonic motors or BLDC motors24,25.In this paper, we propose a robot manipulator that possesses ahigh output torque and efficiency but light weight thanks to theuse of a distributed actuation mechanism. Different perspectivesfrom 24 are presented for the robot manipulator design, whichallows for a systematic design process. Also, the control of the robotmanipulator is newly presented. As a result, the proposed robotmanipulator is expected to be an effective alternative that may beused in several fields (e.g., mobile robot platforms 2628).The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, the distributedactuation principle is briefly revisited and analyzed from the per-spective of a manipulator design. In Section 3, the robot design/10.1016/j.mechatronics.2014.09.0150957-4158/? 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.Corresponding author. Tel.: +82 42 350 3047.E-mail address: kyungsookimkaist.ac.kr (K.-S. Kim).Mechatronics 24 (2014) 12231230Contents lists available at ScienceDirectMechatronicsjournal homepage: /locate/mechatronicsand experimental results are presented. Finally, the conclusion fol-lows in Section 4.2. Manipulator with distributed actuation2.1. Review of distributed actuation mechanismsGenerally, robot manipulators are driven by joint actuationmechanisms. For example, a motor-gear assembly is placed atthe joint of two links in the case of industrial robots 2931. Inaddition, a hydraulic actuator is often fixed at the joint for excava-tors 32,33.In contrast to the above, the distributed actuation mechanismgenerates the torque at a joint by thrusting the sliders (connectedby a rigid rod) along the links, as shown in Fig. 1. The slider is actu-ated by a ball-screw with a motor. A typical feature of the distrib-uted actuation with dual sliders is the freedom to move theactuating points so that the joint torque varies depending on theirlocations, which is an additional degree of freedom (DOF) to max-imize the joint torque. In 24, the fingertip force of a robot fingerwith three joints is significantly increased by optimizing the sliderlocations.On the other hand, the increasing number of actuators is a dis-advantage as the number of joints increases (i.e., two actuators pera joint are needed for the distributed actuation). For small-scaleapplications such as the robot finger in 24, this may not be amajor issue because actuators of small size are only utilized.2.2. Proposed actuation mechanismIn this subsection, we extend the distributed actuation mecha-nism to the design of a light-weight manipulator with a high pay-load capacity (e.g., exceeding 10 kg). To this end, we focus onseveral generic features of the distributed actuation mechanismthat has not been previously investigated in literature.To reduce the number of actuators needed, only one slider isallowed to move by fixing the other at a certain distance (i.e.,x1;fixed) from the joint as shown in Fig. 2. Also, the link has an angleoffset (i.e., hoffset). With this configuration, the redundancy of theslider locations addressed in Section 2.1 cannot be sustained, butthe actuator location remains effectively variable. In other words,the torque generated at the joint varies depending on the locationof the moving slider (i.e., x2). Furthermore, by adjusting the dimen-sions of x1;fixed;h2;Lrodand hoffset, the torque can be maintained to belarger than the required torque for manipulating the payload overthe workspace. To demonstrate this, using the kinematics of themechanism, let us consider the generated torques F2x1;fixedsinh hoffset ? h2x2? x1;fixedcosh hoffsetx2 h2?;1where h cos?1x1;fixed2x22h22?L2rod2ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffix21;fixedx22h22q01A tan?1h2x2? ? hoffsetis the jointangle, and F2is the thrust force of the slider in the moving link.The generated torque changes through the position of the actu-ation point x2, and its profile depends on the design parameterssuch as Lrod;h2;x1;fixed, and hoffsetwhich will be optimized in Section3. In particular, it is noted that hoffsetdoes play an important role toshift the torque profile to some extent within the workspace. Toillustrate it, the generated torques are computed with and withoutthe inclusion of hoffsetfor the same other design parameters of(Lrod;h2;x1;fixed) as shown in Fig. 3. The torque profile is shifted tothe left-hand side when hoffset= 8?so that the generated torque isalways larger than the required torque for manipulating the13 kgf payload through the entire workspace of h. It is noted thatthe required torque is calculated by considering the payload andthe weight of two links of the prototype of a manipulator whichwill be developed in Section 3. The proposed mechanism with asingle slider does not provide the redundancy of slider positionsneeded to maximize the output torque. However, this issue canbe mitigated by optimizing the structural parameters consideringthe performance specifications within the workspace.Fig. 1. The concept of a distributed actuation mechanism.Fig. 2. The joint model of the proposed robot manipulator.Fig. 3. The effect of angle offset (hoffset) at joint 1.1224S.-H. Kim et al./Mechatronics 24 (2014) 12231230The proposed mechanism has several features different fromthe conventional joint actuation. First, the structural stiffnessincreases significantly because of the (triangular) closed loopstructure featuring the connecting rod. The bending moment dueto the external load can be supported by the repulsive force ofthe connecting rod, which decreases the deflection and maximumbending moment. In addition, different from JM, the deflectioncaused by ball-screw is almost negligible, because the stiffness ofball-screw is significantly high. Therefore, despite the light weightof the robot, the proposed mechanism has significant structuralstiffness, allowing heavy objects to be handled.Second,by adoptinga ball-screwsystemto actuatethe linearsli-der, we can achieve the high speed reduction ratio with remarkablyhigh efficiency in the torque-force conversion process. Comparedwith the conventional speed reducers which are composed of aplanetary gear and a harmonic drive having a transmission effi-ciency lower than 70%, the ball screw system has the efficiency ofapproximately 95%,and, so thus, it would require a smaller actuatorwhile maintaining the desired output power of the manipulator.This feature is also advantageous to build up a light manipulatorsystem.To demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed manipulator,we virtually design two different manipulators as shown in Fig. 4.One is a conventional 1-DOF manipulator using the standard jointactuation mechanism (JM) and the other is the proposed 1-DOFmanipulator with the distributed actuation mechanism (DM). Forboth cases, the design targets are to achieve the payload capacityof 13 kgf at the 0.7 m outreach, and an output power of about110 W. Also, for DM, it is assumed that Lrod;x1;fixed;h2and hoffsetare230 mm, 145 mm, 38 mm and 8?, respectively (which are alsothe parameters used for the hardware design in Section 3). Thedetailed descriptions are summarized in Table 1. The motor, thespeed reducer (composed of a harmonic drive and a planetary gear)and a ball-screw are all selected among commercially availablecomponents to have the similar outputs at the joint (i.e., the jointtorque and speed). The designs may not be optimal but best in thetrial-and-error approach. First, a larger motor is adopted for JMbecause the efficiency of the harmonic drive is low as about 70%.On the other hand, in the case of DM, the efficiency of ball-screwis about 95% so that a smaller and lighter motor can be utilized.Moreover, the ball-screw is much lighter than that of the speedreducer of JM. As a result, DM is significantly lighter than JM whilekeeping the similar output power to it. It is noted that the workingrange of DM is smaller than that of JM, which may be a drawback.However, this may not be a critical issue if the task of DM is limitedinside the working range (e.g., an explosive ordnance disposal(EOD) manipulator, a palletizing manipulator and etc.).Besides, DM has structural advantages thanks to higher stiffnessthan that of JM. It is noted that, in Table 1, the joint stiffness of DMis 119 kNm/rad that is almost 2 times larger than that of JM.Fig. 4. The virtual design of 1-DOF manipulator with the joint actuation (a) or thedistributed actuation (b).Table 1Comparison result: design results and major specifications.Item 1Item 2Sub-itemsDesign with JMDesign with DMMajor partsaMotorModelEC 45EC 60 flatPower164 W111 WSpeed9290 rpm3740 rpmWeight850 g470 gHarmonic driveModelCSG32(160:1)Weight890 gPlanetary gearModelGP42C(6:1)Weight260 gBall-screwModelMDK 1002Weight200 gFramebWeight1526 g1450 gDesign resultOutput at jointcTorque114 Nm111 NmSpeed1.01 rad/s0.93 rad/sJoint stiffness41 kNm/rad119 kNm/radNatural frequencyd1.2 kHz2.1 kHzMax. deflectionLink497lrad415lradSpeed reducer776lrad29lradEfficiency 70% 95%Operating range0360?30120?Total weight3526 g2120 gaManufacturers: (i) motor and planetary gear maxon motor AG, (ii) ball-screw and harmonic drive THK.bFor the maximal deflection of the link tip to be smaller than 500lrad at the maximum payload of 13 kgf.cThe values of torque and velocity of DM are average values.dThe values are calculated with the 13 kgf payload.S.-H. Kim et al./Mechatronics 24 (2014) 122312301225Fig. 5. The design procedure of proposed manipulator.Table 2The detailed specification of the proposed 2-DOF manipulator.Spec.Joint 1Joint 2Motor torque284 mNm284 mNmMotor speed3740 rpm3740 rpmLength of (x1;fixed)145 mm130 mmLength of (Lrod)230 mm230 mmLink length (L)360 mm393 mmOffset from slider (h2)38 mm38 mmOperating range30120?30120?Lead of ball screw2 mm2 mmMax thrust force839 N839 NOutput torquea112.2 Nm100.3 NmJoint velocitya0.93 rad/s1.04 rad/sAngle offsetb8?0?Maximum payloadc13.0 kgMaximum reach0.65 mWeight4.2 kgEfficiency 95 %aThe values of torque and velocity are average values.bAt joint 2, the angle offset isnt considered to simplify the design.cThe payload is calculated with about 10% safety factor.Fig. 6. The 2-DOF distributed actuation robot manipulator.1226S.-H. Kim et al./Mechatronics 24 (2014) 12231230Subjected to the load of a 13 kg-mass, the maximum deflections atthe joint of JM and DM are 1273lrad and 444lrad, respectively.This clearly shows that DM has higher positional accuracy at theend-tip under loads. Also, the high joint stiffness results in thenhigh natural frequency, which avoids the undesirable structuralvibration which may be caused during the manipulation of pay-loads.Usingthat,from34,35,fn12pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiMJKJM=DMMJq,whereM;KJM=DMand J are the inertia of link and load, the joint stiffnessof JM and DM, and the rotor inertia reflected to the link side of gearreduction, respectively, the natural frequencies of DM and JM are2.1 kHz and 1.2 kHz, respectively. It is known that the low naturalfrequency of the manipulator may cause the residual vibration anddegrades the position control performance 3537.3. Design and experiments3.1. Design of the 2-DOF robot manipulatorThe overall design procedure is described in Fig. 5.Step 1: Define the target tasks (e.g, payload, workspace, andetc.).Step 2: Given the target tasks, the link length and motor arespecified with workspace, payload and the speed of end-tip. Also,the required torque is calculated.Step 3: The stroke of the slider should be constrained to theregion of x2;min;x2;max depending on the workspace and the linklengths. Also, the thrust force (F2) is calculated by the selectedmotor considering the payload.Step 4: x1;fixedand h2should be determined by considering theweight and the tolerable deflection of the parts. A large x1;fixedincreases the generated torque. However, there is a trade-offbetween increases in the weight and the bending deflection. Simi-larly, a large h2also increases the generated torque, but it exacer-bates the structural bending and interferes the workspace. Thus,the samples of design parameters (x1;fixed;i;h2;j) are determined byconsidering limitations.x1;fixed;min6 x1;fixed;i6 x1;fixed;max;i 1;.;n1;h2;min6 h2;j6 h2;max;j 1;.;n2:2Step 5: For every combination of x1;fixed;iand h2;j, the samples ofconnecting rod (Lrod;ij;k) are calculated by using the working rangeof joint and the range of stroke of slider of the manipulator.Lrod;minhmin;x2;max 6 Lrod;ij;k6 Lrod;maxhmax;x2;min;k 1;.;n3:3Step 6: The samples of angle offset (hoffset;m;m 1;.;n4) aredefined by considering the workspace.Then, the set of design parameters, R, is defined as follows:R x1;i;h2;j;Lrod;ij;k;hoffset;m?;4and, each of samples is equally spaced.Step 7: For every set of parameters, the generated torque,sr, issimulated, and, the difference between the generated torque andthe required torque,sreq, is also calculated. If the generated torqueis smaller than required torque, the corresponding set of parame-ters is neglected.Step 8: The optimal set of design parameters, ropt, is determinedby maximizing the minimum difference between the generatedFig. 7. Experimental setup of mass lifting task: joint position control scheme (top), the control system of 2-DOF single slider distributed actuation robot manipulator(bottom).Table 3Via points of the desired trajectory in Cartesian space.t (sec)0.03.013.023.026.0yd(mm)0.00.0100.00.00.0xd(mm)602.8602.8602.8602.8602.8S.-H. Kim et al./Mechatronics 24 (2014) 122312301227torque and required torque. In addition, the design procedure isrepeated until the robot with roptsatisfy the target tasks.ropt arg maxr2Rminh2 hmin;hmax?srh ?sreqh?;subjected tosrh Psreqh:5Through the proposed procedure, a 2-DOF robot was designedand the parameters of it are summarized in Table 2. Also, the pro-totype was developed as shown in Fig. 6. A 2-DOF robot was devel-oped to verify the feasibility and performance of the manipulatorin the Cartesian task space, as shown in Fig. 6. Aluminum alloy(AL7075) is selected to ensure the rigid but light structure. Flat-type BLDC motors (EC-60, maxon motor AG) and ball screws withthe 2 mm lead-pitch (MDK-1002, THK Co., Ltd.) are adopted for lin-ear actuation.3.2. Mass lifting experiment on the 2-DOF ArmIn this experiment, a DSP (TMS320F28335, Texas InstrumentsInc.) is used to control the position of each slider, and a PD controlwith a 1 kHz sampling rate is applied. The experimental setup isshown in Fig. 7. The lifting task for a 13 kgf payload is conductedFig. 8. The experimental results: (a) position response of joint 1, (b) position response of joint 2, (c) tracking error of h1, (d) tracking error of h2, (e) control input of joint 1 and(f) control input of joint 2.1228S.-H. Kim et al./Mechatronics 24 (2014) 12231230at an extreme bound of the workspace. To this end, the trajectorywas chosen to handle the payload at the maximum extension ofthe manipulator. A 5thorder polynomial was used for shaping thetrajectory in the xy plane. The via points are shown in Table 3. Ini-tially, the manipulator stops with no load (t = 03.0 s). Then, a13.0 kgf is applied to the manipulator as the end-tip moves upward(t = 3.013.0 s). Finally, the end-tip moves downward (t = 13.023.0 s), and the manipulator returns to the initial point.The dynamic model of the distributed actuation manipulatorcan be expressed as an elastic joint 34,Mq Kq ? h 0;link equationJh Kh ? q s;motor equation6where M is the inertia of links, K is the equivalent joint stiffness ofmanipulator including the speed reducer (ball-screw), J is the iner-tia of the motor, q is the angle of link, and h is the angle of motor.Also, PD controller is implemented for the position control ofthe end-tip as follows,s1s2? KPh1d? h1h2d? h2? KD_h1d?_h1_h2d?_h2 !:7Then, the closed loop transfer function of each joints is derivedby,TchhdKDMs3 KPMs2 KDKs KPKMJs4 KDMs3M JK KPMs2 KDKs KPK8where hdis the desired angle of motor. If KPand KDare positive, thecharacteristics equation is Hurwitz, and the closed loop system isstable (RouthHurwitz criteria). Furthermore, the experimentalgains KP diag109:8;109:8? and KD diag14:6;14:6? are deter-mined by the ZieglerNichols method.The experimental results are shown in Fig. 8. When lifting a13.0 kg mass, the RMS tracking errors at the joint 1 and 2 are20.4lrad and 46.3lrad, respectively. These correspond to theposition errors at the sliders 1 and 2 of 9.3lm and 13.0lm,respectively. These results clearly demonstrate that the distributedactuation mechanism does provide the sufficient torque to handlethe high payload near full stretch points.It should be pointed out that the ratio of payload-to-weight ofthe manipulator is 3.1 (in practice, the ratio is nearby or less than1). In fact, the closed structure along with the links and the con-necting rod does enhance the structural rigidity so that the highpayload can be easily handled nevertheless of the light weight ofthe manipulator. Also, it is expected that the deflection of theend-tip of the manipulator would reduce effectively thanks tothe high structural rigidity.As mentioned in the previous sections, the proposed mecha-nism shows the high (transmission) efficiency. During the liftingtask, the efficiency of each joint is computed as follows:gEidealEinEm EworkEm EworkDE11 DEEmEworkffi1 ?DEEm Ework9where Eidealis the ideal required energy from the given trajectoryand payload, Einis the supplied energy in the experiment, Emisthe energy consumption of motor, Eworkis the work at the end-tip,andDE is the energy loss from ball-screw and friction of slider. Asshown in (9), the transmission efficiency of the proposed mecha-nism can be calculated. Consequently, the efficiency of joint 1 andjoint 2 are 87% and 94%, respectively. It is lower than 95% (whichis the efficiency of the ball screw) due to the frictional loss at thesliders and joints. However, they are still remarkably high com-pared with that of the conventional joint actuation mechanism.Indeed, the efficiency is an important factor to design the manipu-lator since it will affect the choice of the actuator capacity.Overall, through the experiments, it turns out that the proposedmechanism allows a high payload, light weight and highly efficient.4. ConclusionIn this paper, a design method for manipulator was newly pro-posed based on the sliding actuation of the distributed actuationmechanism. Due to the high efficiency of the ball-screw and theenhanced structural stiffness, the proposed manipulator has highpayload capacity nevertheless of the light weight structure. Also,we proposed the systematic procedure for optimal design. The pro-posed design strategies were verified by developing a prototype of2-DOF serial robot. The prototype manipulator of the 4.2 kg massshowed the 13 kgf payload capacity with the maximum efficiencyof 94%, which may not be achievable by using the conventionaljoint actuation mechanisms.AcknowledgementThis research was supported by Basic Science Research Programthrough the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) fundedby the Ministry of Education (2013058609).References1 Parasiliti F, Villani M, Lucidi S, Rinaldi F. Finite-element-based multiobjectivedesign optimization procedure of interior permanent magnet synchronousmotors for wide constant-power region operation. IEEE Trans Ind Electron2012;59(6):250314.2 Sooriyakumar G, Perryman R, Dodds SJ. Design optimisation for permanentmagnet synchronous motors using genetic algorithm. In: Proc universitiespower eng conf (UPEC); 2010. p. 16.3 Bangura JF. Design of high-power density and relatively high-efficiency flux-switching motor. 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