译文-Programming Languages

大连东软信息学院毕业设计（论文）外文资料及译文系 所： 专 业： 班 级： 姓 名： 学 号： 大连东软信息学院Dalian Neusoft University of Information外文资料和译文格式要求一、装订要求1、外文资料原文（复印或打印）在前、译文在后、最后为指导教师评定成绩。2、译文必须采用计算机输入、打印。3、A4 幅面打印，于左侧装订。二、撰写要求1、外文文献内容与所选课题相关。2、本科学生译文汉字字数不少于 4000字，高职学生译文汉字字数不少于 2000字。三、格式要求1、译文字号：中文小四号宋体，英文小四号“Times New Roman”字型，全文统一，首行缩进 2个中文字符，1.5 倍行距。2、译文页码：页码用阿拉伯数字连续编页，字体采用“Times New Roman”字体，字号小五，页底居中。3、译文页眉：眉体使用单线，页眉说明五号宋体，居中“大连东软信息学院本科毕业设计（论文）译文”。Programming LanguagesI. IntroductionIn computer science, programming language is an artificial language used to write a series of instructions (a computer program) by a computer running. Similar to English and other natural languages with the programming language vocabulary, grammar and syntax. However, natural language not suitable for computer programming, because they can cause ambiguity, that their vocabulary and grammatical structure may be interpreted in various ways. Computer programming language used must have a simple logical structure, their grammar, spelling and punctuation rules must be precise.Programming languages vary greatly in complexity and general degree. Some programming languages to deal with specific types of computational problems, or for use in a specific type of computer system and write. For example, FORTRAN and COBOL and other programming languages to solve certain types of problems common programming -FORTRAN written application to the field of science, and COBOL applications to the business world. While these languages are designed to handle specific types of computer problems, but they have a high portability, which means that they can be used for many types of computer programming. Other languages, such as machine language for a particular type of computer system, or even a particular computer, using written in certain fields of study. The most commonly used programming languages are highly portable and can be used effectively to solve different types of computational problems. Like C, PASCAL and BASIC languages like fall into this category.Second, the language typeProgramming languages can be divided into low-level language and high-level language. Low-level programming language or machine language, programming language is the most basic type of computer can be directly understood. Machine language depending on the computer manufacturer and vary by model. High-level language that must be translated into machine language the computer can understand and deal with programming languages. Examples of C, C +, PASCAL and FORTRAN are high-level language. Intermediate language assembly language is very close to machine language, there is no degree of language complexity exhibited by other high-level languages, but still have to be translated into machine language.1, the machine languageIn the machine language, the instructions are written in a computer and can be directly understood by a 0 (called bit) sequence. A machine language instructions that tell the computer generally four things: (1) to the computers main memory (RAM) of what position to find one or two numbers or simple piece of data; (2) a simple operation to be performed, such as the two numbers together; (3) the simple result of what is stored in the main memory location; and (4) what position to go to the next instruction to be executed. Despite all the executable programs are ultimately in the form of machine language read by the computer, but they are not always written in machine language. Directly in machine language programming is extremely difficult, because the instruction is a sequence of 0s and 1s. A typical machine-language instructions may be written 1001011001011, meaning that the contents of the storage register A is added to the content stored in the B register.2, high-level languageHigh-level language is relatively complex series of statements that use the vocabulary and syntax from human language. High-level language than assembly language or machine language similar to normal human language, a high-level language to write complex programs easier. These programming languages can be developed more and more complex programs faster. However, high-level language must be translated by another program called the compiler into machine language, the computer can understand them. For this reason, and programs written in assembly language, compared with a long high-level language programs may run time, taking up more memory.3, assembly languageComputer programmer by using assembly language, so that the machine language program is relatively easy to write. In assembly language, each statement corresponds roughly to a machine language instructions. With assembly language statement is written in easy-to-remember commands. In a typical assembly language statement, the contents of register A is added to the contents of memory stored in the command register B, may be written as ADD B, A. Assembly language and machine language has certain characteristics in common. For example, for a particular bit manipulation, assembly language and machine language are possible. When the program to minimize the running time is very important when using assembly language programmers, because from assembly language to machine language translation is relatively simple. Assembly language is also used in some parts of the computer case must be direct control, such as a single point or a single character on the monitor flow to the printer.Category three, high-level languageHigh-level language is usually divided into process-oriented languages, functional languages, object-oriented language or logic language. Today the most common high-level language is process-oriented language. In this language, perform one or more of the associated block of statements consisting of a complete function of a program module or procedure, and is given such as Process A a class name. If you need the same sequence of operations elsewhere in the program, you can use a simple statement repatriation process. In essence, a process is a small program. A large program may be constituted by combined process will perform different tasks. Procedural language to make the program becomes shorter, and more likely to be read by a computer, but requires the programmer to each process is designed to be generic enough to be used in different situations. Functional languages treat treatment process, like mathematical functions, and allows image processing program handles them just like any other data. This makes the program structure at a higher, more rigorous level can be achieved. Functional languages also allow variable - can be specified and data symbols changed during user program execution - only be assigned once. Thus, by reducing the need to give the exact sequence of statements executed attention, it simplifies the programming, because every time there is no need to use a variable in a program statement, statement or re-re-description. Many of the ideas from functional languages has become a key part of many modern procedural languages.The development of object-oriented languages is the result of functional languages. In object-oriented languages, used to write program code and data processed by the program, a combination of units called objects. Further objects grouped into classes, and class objects must have the attribute is defined. A simple example of this class is the class book. The object of this class may be novels and short stories. There are also certain object associated functions, called methods. Computer to access the object by using an object in some way. Method to perform some operation on the data object, then the value returned to the computer. Class objects can be further grouped into layers, and the objects in the layer of a class can inherit another class. This structure provides an object-oriented language, so that the language is very useful for complex programming tasks.Logical language as its logical foundations of mathematics. Logic Program by the fact that a set of if - then rules constitute, if - then rules specifying how a set of facts can be inferred from the fact that other groups, for example: if X statement is true, then Y statement is false.During the execution of such a program, an input statement can be logically inferred from other statements in the program. Many AI programs using this language.Fourth, the language structure and compositionProgramming language using specific types of statements or instructions to provide functional structure to the program. Program statement is an expression of the basic idea of a simple sentence - its purpose is to give a basic computer instruction. Statement defines the allowed data types, data processing, and how the process works and functions. Use programming language statements to manipulate a common ingredient programmers such as variables and macros (programs applet segment).Data declaration statements to those program elements called variable name and attributes. Variables in the program can be given different values. May have a property called variable type, they include: What are the possible values of variables can be stored; numerical precision the extent of the use of these values; and a variable can be an organized manner how the structure - such as in a table or array the form - represents a relatively simple set of values. In many programming languages, a key data type is a pointer. Pointer variable has a value in itself, but contains information on a computer can be used to find other variables - that is, they point to another variable.Expression is a sequence of statements for a series of calculations described operations to be performed on some of the program variables, such as X + Y / Z, wherein X, Y and Z are variables, addition and division are calculated operation. Assignment to a variable was given a value of self-expression, and conditional statements is designated to be tested and then used to select the next expression other statements should be executed. Procedures and functions of certain blocks of code statements can later be defined as callback procedure or function in the program. These statements also define optional programmer types of variables and parameters, as well as access to the process when the type of the expression or function code is returned when the value. Many programming languages allow a small translation program called macros. Acer will translate those language structures defined by the programmer to write code snippets into a programming language can understand the statement.V. HistoryAlmost programming language in the 1940s when the invention of the digital computer can be traced. With the introduction of commercial computer, the first assembly language appeared in the late 1950s. The first process language in the late 1950s to the early 1960s developed: John Bacchus created FORTRAN language, followed by Grace Hopper created COBOL language. The first is a functional language LISP, written by John McCarthy in the late 20th century 1950s. All three languages are still widely used today, but experienced a large number of updates.The late 1960s, there has been the first object-oriented languages such as SIMULA languages. Logical language in the mid-1970s with the introduction of PROLOG language becomes known, PROLOG language is a language for writing artificial intelligence software. In the 1970s, the process of language continues to develop, there has been ALGOL, BASIC, PASCAL, C and Ada and other languages. SMALLTALK language is object-oriented language, a highly influential, it led the process of object-oriented language and C + language binding and in more recent JAVA language. Despite the prevalence of pure logic language has declined, but the variant form of language used in modern relational database has become very important, such as Structured Query Language.大连东软信息学院毕业设计（论文）译文-1-编程语言在计算机科学中，编程语言是用于编写可由计算机运行的一系列指令（计算机程序）的人工语言。与英语等自然语言相类似，编程语言有词汇、语法和句法。然而，自然语言不适合为计算机编程，因为它们会引起歧义，也就是说它们的词汇和语法结构可能被用多种方式进行解释。用于计算机编程的语言必须有简单的逻辑结构，它们的语法、拼写和标点符号规则必须精确。编程语言在复杂性和通用程度上差异很大。一些编程语言是为了处理特定类型的计算问题或为了用于特定型号的计算机系统而编写的。例如，FORTRAN和COBOL等编程语言是为解决某些普遍的编程问题类型而编写的FORTRAN是为了科学领域的应用，而COBOL是为了商业领域的应用。尽管这些语言旨在处理特定类型的计算机问题，但它们具有很高的可移植性，也就是说它们可以用来为多种类型的计算机编程。其他的语言，如机器语言，是为一种特定型号的计算机系统，甚至是一台特定的计算机，在某些研究领域使用而编写的。最常用的编程语言具有很高的可移植性，可以用于有效地解决不同类型的计算问题。像C、PASCAL和BASIC这样的语言就属于这一范畴。二、语言类型编程语言可分为低级语言和高级语言。低级编程语言或机器语言，是编程语言中最基础的类型，可以被计算机直接理解。机器语言视计算机制造商与型号不同而有所区别。高级语言是必须首先翻译成机器语言计算机才能理解和处理的编程语言。C、C+、PASCAL和FORTRAN都是高级语言的例子。汇编语言是中级语言，非常接近于机器语言，没有其他高级语言所表现出的语言复杂程度，但仍然得翻译成机器语言。1、机器语言在机器语言中，指令被写成计算机能够直接理解的1和0（称作位）序列。一条机器语言指令一般告诉计算机4件事：（1）到计算机主存（随机存储器）的什么位置去找一两个数字或简单的数据片；（2）要执行的简单操作，如将两个数字相加；（3）在主存的什么位置存放该简单操作的结果；（4）到什么位置去找下一条要执行的指令。尽管所有的可执行程序最终都是以机器语言的形式被计算机读入的，但它们并非都是用机器语言编写的。直接用机器语言编程极端困难，因为指令是0和1大连东软信息学院毕业设计（论文）译文-2-的序列。一条典型的机器语言指令可能写成100101100 1011，意思是把存储寄存器A的内容加到存储寄存器B的内容中。2、高级语言高级语言是相对复杂的一系列语句，它们使用来自人类语言的词汇和句法。高级语言比汇编语言或机器语言类似于正常的人类语言，因此用高级语言来编写复杂的程序比较容易。这些编程语言可以更快地开发更大和更复杂的程序。然而，高级语言必须由称为编译器的另外一种程序翻译成机器语言，计算机才能理解它们。因为这个原因，与用汇编语言编写的程序相比较，用高级语言编写的程序可能运行时间长，占用内存多。3、汇编语言计算机程序员通过使用汇编语言，使机器语言程序比较容易编写。在汇编语言中，每个语句大致对应于一条机器语言指令。汇编语言的语句是借助易于记忆的命令编写的。在一个典型的汇编语言语句中，把存储寄存器A的内容加到存储寄存器B的内容中这一命令，可能写成ADD B, A。汇编语言与机器语言具有某些共同的特征。例如，对特定的位进行操控，用汇编语言和机器语言都是可行的。当尽量减少程序的运行时间很重要时，程序员就使用汇编语言，因为从汇编语言到机器语言的翻译相对简单。汇编语言也用于计算机的某个部分必须被直接控制的情况，如监视器上的单个点或者单个字符向打印机的流动。三、高级语言的分类高级语言通常分为面向过程语言、函数式语言、面向对象语言或逻辑语言。当今最常见的高级语言是面向过程语言。在这种语言中，执行某个完整功能的一个或多个相关的语句块组成一个程序模块或过程，而且被给予诸如“过程A”一类名称。如果在程序的其他地方需要同样的操作序列，可以使用一个简单的语句调回这个过程。实质上，一个过程就是一个小型程序。一个大型程序可以通过将执行不同任务的过程组合在一起而构成。过程语言使程序变得比较短，而且比较容易被计算机读取，但要求程序员将每个过程都设计得足够通用，能用于不同的情况。函数式语言像对待数学函数一样对待过程，并允许像处理程序中的任何其他数据一样处理它们。这就使程序构造在更高、更严密的水平上得以实现。函数式语言也允许变量在程序运行过程中可以被用户指定和更改的数据符号只被赋值一次。这样，通过大连东软信息学院毕业设计（论文）译文-3-减少对语句执行的确切顺序给予关注的必要性，就简化了编程，因为一个变量没有必要每次在