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江西农业大学毕业设计(论文)任务书设计（论文）课题名称家用食品粉碎机的设计学生姓名吕芳院（系）工学院专 业机械设计制造及其自动化指导教师赵进辉职 称讲师学 历博士毕业设计（论文）要求：熟练掌握AutoCAD、Pro/E或UG等绘图软件，对机械原理、机械设计有较深入的理解和认识。毕业设计（论文）内容与技术参数：用AutoCAD、Pro/E或UG绘图软件设计粉碎机的结构图（机座、料杯、机罩、刀具盖、料杯盖、滤网及隔离罩、刀具等机械结构），要求其长宽高不大于0.35米。毕业设计（论文）工作计划：一、 课题准备阶段，收集材料，了解课题的内容，初步确定解决方案。二、 家用食品粉碎机总体设计。三、 家用食品粉碎机其他机构设计。四、 撰写毕业论文。接受任务日期 年 月 日 要求完成日期 年 月 日学 生 签 名 年 月 日指导教师签名 年 月 日院长（主任）签名 年 月 日绿 色 垃 圾 车 越来越多的垃圾运输商开始倾销处理柴油，改用天然气这样的更洁净燃料，这个新发现是由德博朗金,杰瑞博德斯基以及杰姆卡龙调查报告的。摘要: 这项研究,调查通报了垃圾车对环境、卫生、工人和国家能源安全的影响。我们也介绍了一系列运用当今新兴和主流的燃料以及引擎技术的经验，简要介绍了已经通过测试并运用的先进垃圾车技术和可供选择的燃料。我们研究的动机是为了天然气运用工程、各类车用燃料和技术、车辆加油费用及基建、遇到障碍、职工培训、减少排放和噪音以及运用到新车上等问题。关键词: 绿色垃圾车、洁净燃料、天然气燃料卡车1前言每天清晨, 垃圾车穿梭于全国的大街小巷，停靠在七千五百多万个都市和市郊家庭的附近。这些垃圾车一路上不仅收集垃圾还回收废纸、塑料、以及金属，但是这些废料是由超过七百万企业和将近 100,000 州和地方政府所丢弃。搬运废物是一项可以让我们的街道和人行道免于垃圾和鼠害的重要的工作，尽管如此，它仍然没有受到足够地重视。美国是一个垃圾制造数量不断上升的国家，过去30年来,城市人均每天产生的固体废物量倍增，从2.3磅到4.7磅。估计有136000辆垃圾回收车，12000辆运输车以及31000辆垃圾处理车在带走美国的垃圾。 这支庞大的队伍带来的负面影响是多方面而且广泛的。90%以上的垃圾车以及超过99%的重型载重垃圾车产成空气和噪音的污染。柴油废气威胁市民的健康，有毒有害物质可导致肺癌，噪音会引起严重的听觉疾病。这项研究,调查通报了垃圾车对环境、卫生、工人和国家能源安全的影响。我们也介绍了一系列运用当今新兴和主流的燃料以及引擎技术的经验，简要介绍了已经通过测试并运用的先进垃圾车技术和可供选择的燃料。我们研究的动机是为了天然气运用工程、各类车用燃料和技术、车辆加油费用及基建、遇到障碍、职工培训、减少排放和噪音以及运用到新车上等问题。在整个过程中我们采访了许多垃圾行业的人士、引擎制造者、燃料供应者、管理者以及其他行业的专家。结论就是这样研究得来的。2 正文替代柴油 柴油燃料垃圾车是美国最古老的、最耗燃料的但同时也是最污染环境的车队，他们对环境、社区卫生服务人员，以及操作它们的工人的健康构成很大的威胁。此外，这些车辆几乎完全依赖于石油燃料的化合物，由于这些燃料出口国都是世界上政局不稳定的地方，以至我们国家面临着安全危机。令人欣慰的是这种局面改变了。19家矿物废料的操纵者（17家在美国，日本、荷兰各1家）在改用绿色燃料的领导会议上表示，用改进引擎技术，天然气燃料汽车（NGVS）是可以实现的、具有商业价值的转变。与此同时,越来越多的社区开始考虑引进绿色技术并纳入当地垃圾收集队伍。在这个方向上迈出的每一步都促进了能源安全，提供环境和健康方面利益的即时体现，以及使我们朝氢燃料电池的方向发展，最终实现可持续发展、无污染、可再生的能源和燃料。建设天然气车队柴油机垃圾运输车包括在那些排放要求使用清洁能源和使用昂贵技术（包括低硫燃料和污染控制装置，象粒子过滤器和氧催化剂那样）重型车辆中，并于2004年开始使用该标准。这些技术中有一些但不是全部都和柴油消耗有关联。替代燃料和先进的推进力系统能轻易达到新标准，目前已经被推广和广泛运用于商业主要是使用天然气的发动机。美国通知监督17支垃圾车队和9支其它车队，共部署了692辆天然气燃料卡车。当越来越多的车辆制造商和燃料基础设施提供者和汽车部门的发展有利害关系时，越来越多的市政和私人操作者每年把天然气燃料卡车增加到他们的车队中。下面是关于当今天然气废料收集队伍的要点，随后是调查发现和关于干净燃料的综合建议以及垃圾车队建设的操作： 垃圾车可以燃烧压缩天然气（CNG）或者液化天然气（LNG），为目前美国有100万户以上,数以万计的企业和城市的居民提供服务。l 1989年纽约市环保局率先使用天然气卡车，目前他们操作着36辆CNG卡车。l 垃圾管理公司，垃圾工业最大的运输和处理公司，在天然气卡车的使用上明显是美国工业的领导者，他们拥有14支车队380辆卡车，其中13支在加州，另一支在宾夕法尼亚州。l 通过对美国26支使用NGVS的垃圾车队调查显示，10个是由公共机构操纵，16个是由根据合同规定隶属市政府的私人公司操纵。l 当整个路线对燃料的需求超过车辆本身所带的压缩天然气的能力时，在近700辆天然气卡车中，69%是用液化天然气作动力的，31%是用压缩天然气作动力。很多时候之所以选择压缩天然气是因为可以和其他的车队共同使用现有的加油站。l 尽管目前在商业供应上，天然气垃圾车远低于传统垃圾车1%。如果所有的公司都计划实施天然气垃圾车工程的话，那么垃圾车的数量将超过2200还只是略超过百分之一的美国车队。l 许多卡车生产厂家都提供天然气垃圾车，但各种各样的天然气垃圾车仍远远落后于柴油车。l 新公司出现在加油设备安装、送天然气燃料上争生意的现象。调查发现：使用压缩天然气和液化天然气的垃圾车减少了二氧化碳排放量,减小对空气品质的危害，同时噪音小了，可以减轻对工人健康的威胁。l 举了9个垃圾车操作工人的例子证明使用柴油对他们健康产生负面影响。在纽约环保局工作的司机是最有力的证据，在那里普通卡车按年代作了标记，天然气卡车被优先安排使用。l 通过调查荷兰这个广泛采用天然气燃料卡车以减小噪音的国家发现，旁置式燃料系统可以减小98%的噪音，内置式燃料系统可以减小90%的噪音，后置式燃料系统可以减小50%的噪音。l 车队的管理人士全面地分析了减小噪音对卡车驾驶员的好处，这些噪音对卡车驾驶员造成听觉以及交际方面的危害。调查发现：压缩天然气和液化天然气在燃料安全方面有一项光辉的记录。l 压缩天然气燃料箱顺利通过了耐久性测试，这项测试对全世界范围内压缩天然气箱应用产生的破裂以及泄露问题进行了广泛地调查。数以千计的货运卡车载着液化天然气行驶在美国的高速公路上，但是没有发生一件严重的事故。1990到1993年这段时间里，300辆液化天然气汽车行驶了600万到800万英里，其中只发生了4件事故，并且只对燃料系统造成了很小的损坏。但是天然气燃料不如传统燃料安全的看法仍然存在。调查发现：改用压缩天然气/液化天然气的成本很大。l 实现燃料转变工程的首要成本可能是垃圾收集代理商不认同这样的一个改变的重要性，让他们认同并自动改用新燃料会遇到很多挫折。l 对美国车队的调查研究显示，天然气燃料垃圾车的价格从210000美元到250000美元，这个价格和传统的柴油燃料垃圾车相比要高出15%到25%。现有的卡车要实行动力的改变费用在30000美元到100000美元之间。l 改进现有的垃圾车队到天然气车队的所有成本必须依靠许多厂家，包括系统内各部分燃料的补给、车辆维护成本、设备需求、当地的安全法规、劳力和培训成本、燃料成本以及必要的经济激励。调查发现：国外以及国内动向是产生固体垃圾的工业转向使用更洁净的燃料部分使用天然气燃料。l 车辆部门的官方人员大量的引用了当今的环境规则作为把柴油燃料垃圾车转变为天然气垃圾车的理由。NGVS允许车队符合现有的以及政府计划调整的规则，这些规则是专门为重型垃圾清扫卡车设计，用于提高空气质量的。l 决策者经常受到经济学的影响。更低的天然气价格、优惠的税收政策、给予项目以及法规方面的特权，使得NGVS能够让垃圾运输商更经济合理的实现向天然气垃圾车的转变。l 美国政府允许MSERC为了天然气垃圾汽车的利益建立一个空气污染的商业市场。l 法院发布的命令和市民的投诉导致了天然气垃圾车以及重型天然气发动机的产生和改进。l 高层决策者希望成为环境或则可以左右环境组织者的领导。l 在垃圾回收行业的竞争领域，一些运输商希望通过使用NGVS在市场上超过竞争对手。l 决定改换垃圾车的燃料也是为了改善工人的工作状和减少采用柴油燃料带来的健康威胁以及柴油引擎产生的大量噪音。推 荐：为了远离使用柴油，走向一个更洁净的，稳固发展的运输业的未来，推荐下列政策和方法：l 现在就开展替代柴油燃料垃圾车的活动，避免将来低硫柴油燃料的开支以及发射控制技术，这些技术面临许多迫切需要解决的EPA方面的问题以及国家政府的标准问题，同时还涉及到潜在的未来柴油燃料卡车以及燃料法令的问题。对柴油燃料的危害给予高度的重视，并更快地作出调整，那些率先使用诸如天然气这样的替代燃料的垃圾运输商将不会因为现在以及将来的政策法规改变而影响他们的生意。l 和燃料供应商、车站以及汽车提供商建立合作伙伴关系有助于实现成本的降低。有效的合作是实现成功地关键因素。参 考： 以上的文章是绿色垃圾车草稿的摘要：清洁空气的新技术，早在2003年由INFORM等发表，一个环境研究组织建立的纽约城市，这个杂志旨在找到促进交通运输业稳固发展的方法，对于完整的报告副本可以浏览 。Greener Garbage TrucksMore trash haulers dumping diesel for cleaner fuels like natural gas, new INFORM report finds By Deborah Gordon, Juliet Burdelski & James S. CannonAbstract: For this study, INFORM investigated the effects of garbage truck operations on the environment, public health, industry workers and national energy security. We also investigated a range of experiences with todays emerging and mainstream fuel and engine technologies, profiling the pioneering waste collection agencies that have tested and deployed advanced garbage truck technologies and alternative fuels. We explored their motivations for natural gas deployment projects, the types of truck technology and fuels used, the costs of vehicles and refueling infrastructure, the obstacles faced, worker training issues, the emissions and noise reductions that trucks in service have achieved and reactions to the new vehicles.Keywords: Greener Garbage Trucks, cleaner fuels, natural gas trucks1.ForewordEvery morning across the nation, garbage trucks wend their way up and down our streets, stopping at the curbs of more than 75 million urban and suburban households. These trucks haul away not just trash and recyclable paper, plastic and metal, but the materials discarded by more than seven million businesses and nearly 100,000 state and local government establishments. Hauling waste is an essential service that helps keep our streets and sidewalks free of refuse and the vermin that accompany it, yet it goes largely unnoticed. America is an increasingly prolific garbage producer. Over the past 30 years, municipal solid waste generation per capita has doubled in the United States, from 2.3 to 4.7 pounds per day. An estimated 136,000 refuse collection trucks, 12,000 transfer vehicles and 31,000 dedicated recycling vehicles haul away Americas garbage. The negative impacts of this massive fleet are numerous and widespread. More than 90 percent of all garbage trucks and over 99 percent of heavy-heavy-duty garbage trucks are diesel fueled, creating both air and noise pollution. Diesel emissions threaten our health with lung-damaging toxic substances and noise levels that can cause serious hearing damage. For this study, INFORM investigated the effects of garbage truck operations on the environment, public health, industry workers and national energy security. We also investigated a range of experiences with todays emerging and mainstream fuel and engine technologies, profiling the pioneering waste collection agencies that have tested and deployed advanced garbage truck technologies and alternative fuels. We explored their motivations for natural gas deployment projects, the types of truck technology and fuels used, the costs of vehicles and refueling infrastructure, the obstacles faced, worker training issues, the emissions and noise reductions that trucks in service have achieved and reactions to the new vehicles. Along the way we also conducted numerous interviews with waste industry personnel, engine manufacturers, fuel suppliers, regulators and other experts. The findings that follow came from that research.2Main textAlternatives to diesel emergeDiesel-fueled garbage trucks are among the oldest, least fuel efficient and most polluting fleet vehicles in the U.S. Their operations pose significant threats to the environment, to the health of those in the communities they serve and to the workers who maintain and operate them. Moreover, the almost complete dependence of these vehicles on oil-derived fuels compounds the national security risks that our country faces because of its reliance on oil imported from politically unstable parts of the world. The good news is that change is afoot. Profiles of 19 waste hauling operators (17 in the United States and one each in Japan and the Netherlands) at the leading edge of the transition to cleaner alternative fuels show that natural gas vehicles (NGVs) are a commercially viable alternative, with other technologies emerging as well. Meanwhile, an increasing number of communities are beginning to consider introducing cleaner technologies into their local trash collection fleets. Every new step in this direction enhances energy security, provides immediate environmental and health benefits and moves us toward the era of the hydrogen fuel cell, which may be the ultimate sustainable, pollution-free and renewable fuel and power source.Pioneering natural gas fleetsDiesel trash haulers are among those that will be subject to new federal heavy-duty vehicle emissions standards requiring the use of cleaner fuels and more costly technologies (including low-sulfur fuel and pollution control devices such as particulate filters and oxidation catalysts) beginning in 2004. These technologies address some but not all the pollution problems associated with diesel exhaust. Alternative fuels and advanced propulsion systems that can easily meet the new standards are being developed and some are fully commercial today mainly with engines that run on natural gas. INFORM profiled 17 garbage truck fleets and tracked an additional nine fleets that together deploy a total of 692 natural gas trucks in the U.S. Many municipal and private operators are adding natural gas garbage trucks to their fleets every year, while a growing number of vehicle manufacturers and fuel infrastructure providers have a stake in the growth of this vehicle sector. Below are key points about current natural gas trash collection fleets, followed by INFORMs findings and recommendations regarding the integration of cleaner fuels and vehicles into garbage truck operations:l Garbage trucks capable of burning either compressed natural gas (CNG) or liquefied natural gas (LNG) currently serve more than one million U.S. households and tens of thousands of businesses and municipal residents.l The use of natural gas trucks was pioneered in 1989 by the New York City Dept. of Sanitation, which currently operates 36 CNG trucks.l Waste Management, Inc., the largest hauling and disposal company in the waste industry, is the clear U.S. industry leader in the use of natural gas trucks, with 380 trucks in 14 of its fleets, including 13 in California and one in Pennsylvania.l Of the 26 U.S. garbage truck fleets using NGVs that INFORM studied, 10 are operated by public agencies and 16 by private companies that operate under contract to a municipal government.l Of the nearly 700 natural gas trucks, 69 percent are powered by LNG and 31 percent by CNG. LNG was preferred when the route demand for fuel was expected to exceed onboard CNG capacity. CNG was often chosen because of the availability of an existing fueling station that could be shared with other fleets.l Despite their commercial availability, natural gas garbage trucks make up far less than one percent of the garbage trucks operating today. If all the companies that are currently planning to implement natural gas garbage truck projects do so, the number of these trucks will increase to more than 2,200 still only slightly more than one percent of the U.S. fleet.l Many major truck manufacturers offer natural gas garbage trucks, yet the variety of natural gas garbage trucks still lags far behind that of diesel trucks.l New companies are emerging to compete for business in installing refueling facilities and delivering natural gas fuel.FINDING: Garbage trucks operating on CNG or LNG have provided emissions reductions and reduced threats to workers from occupational air quality hazards and noise.l Workers at nine garbage truck operations cited relief from the negative health effects of diesel exhaust. Driver preferences were most clearly evident at the New York City Dept. of Sanitation, where trucks are assigned by seniority and natural gas trucks are consistently preferred. l The Netherlands program, where the most comprehensive study of noise reductions with natural gas trucks was conducted, verified reductions of 98 percent alongside, 90 percent inside and 50 percent behind the truck.l Fleet managers overwhelmingly reported that truck operators appreciated the reduction in noise, which was hazardous to their hearing and made communication difficult.FINDING: CNG and LNG have a stellar record of fuel safety.l CNG tanks have survived remarkable durability tests in extensive worldwide applications without leaking or rupture. Thousands of truckloads of LNG have been transported over U.S. highways without significant incident. In the course of 6 to 8 million miles traveled by over 300 LNG vehicles from 1990 to 1993, four collisions occurred, with little damage to the fuel system. Yet the perception still exists that natural gas is not as safe as conventional fuels.FINDING: The costs of switching to CNG/LNG vary greatly.l The capital cost of implementing an alternative fuel program can be a significant disincentive to voluntary action by refuse collection agencies.l Among U.S. fleets studied, the cost of a natural gas garbage truck ranged from $210,000 to $250,000, 15 to 25 percent more than the cost of a comparable diesel truck. The cost to repower an existing truck ranges from $30,000 to $100,000.l The overall cost of shifting a garbage truck fleet to natural gas depends on numerous factors, including refueling infrastructure options, truck maintenance costs, facility requirements, local safety codes, labor and training costs, fuel cost and available economic incentives.FINDING: External and internal motivations are driving the solid waste industry to use cleaner fuels and natural gas in particular.l Fleet officials most commonly cited the need to meet existing and pending environmental regulations as the reason for converting their diesel garbage trucks to natural gas. NGVs allow fleets to meet current and planned government regulations designed to clean up heavy-duty vehicles and improve air quality. l Decisionmakers were often influenced by economics. The lower cost of natural gas, tax incentives, grant programs and bid specifications that give preference to companies that operate NGVs can make natural gas trucks more economically feasible for waste haulers.l States that allow mobile-source emissions reduction credit (MSERC) trading have created a market for the air pollution benefits of natural gas garbage trucks.l Court-issued mandates and citizen lawsuits have resulted in the deployment of natural gas garbage trucks and the development of heavy-duty natural gas engines.l The desire of a high-level decisionmaker to be an environmental leader or to position his/her organization as an environmental leader has motivated several operators.l In areas where there is competition in the refuse industry, some hauler