海洋科学教学指南.doc

“海洋科学导论”教学指南Guidelines for the Course “Introductory Oceanography”l Lecture 1: Introduction1. the nature of oceanography, the study of the ocean and seas, comparison with geography, branches of the science, physical oceanography, marine chemistry, marine biology, marine geology, scientific problems; 2. history, ocean exploration, Phoenicians navigation in the Mediterranean Sea, Greek activities, the Vikings, Chinese expeditions led by Zheng He, Spanish and Portuguese navigations, early scientific activities, James Cook, HMS Beagle expedition, theoretical vs observational studies, theories about tides by Newton and Laplace, observation of tides by ancient Chinese, modern oceanography, HMS Challenger expedition, organization of cruises, international collaboration, ancient Chinese research about tides, world oceanographic institutions; 3. progress in measurement and observation techniques, Deep Sea Drilling Program, submersibles, satellite technology and remote sensing, comparison between the past and present investigations; 4. how to proceed, purpose of the course, thematic approach, structure of the course, methodology for the study, reading material, exercises, essay writing and examination, method of evaluation.l Lecture 2: Processes of Air-sea Interaction1. energy source, general characteristics of the solar energy input, power of solar radiation, kinetic energy (winds), ocean circulation, photosynthesis (biomass), formation of fossil fuels, thermal energy; 2. energy and material exchanges at the air-sea interface, heat budget equation, solar radiation flux, albedo, planetary radiation flux, latent heat of evaporation, turbulent heat flux, budgeting for different latitude zones of the oceans, mechanisms of kinetic energy transfer through boundary layers, water balance, salt balance, salinity, the use of salinity as tracer, aerosol flux, carbon dioxide flux, partial pressure, Normal Atmospheric Equilibrium Concentration, biological pumping; 3. influences on the ocean and atmosphere, ocean circulations, Kuroshio, atmospheric circulations, monsoon, trade winds and cold outbreaks, cyclonic development, influences on the climate; 4. the formation of ENSO events, classic El Nino, water temperature, near-surface pressure, upwelling and down-welling, anchovy fishery, global influences, the “memory” of the heat transport event, long-term effect of tropical Pacific events, South Oscillation Index, Hadley cell, Walker circulation, south-east trade wind, sea surface pressure differences, Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone, South Pacific Convergence Zone cold tongue, dry zone, mechanisms for the formation of ENSO events, positive feedbacks associated with the SE winds, Kelvin waves, the trapped equatorial Kelvin wave.l Lecture 3: Ocean Circulations1. definition of ocean currents, baroclinic and barotropic effects, wind effect; 2. geostrophic currents, inertial movement, pressure gradient induced currents, formation of eddies, velocity and diameter associated with geostrophic eddies, cyclonic and anti-cyclonic eddies; 3. wind-induced currents, currents with sea-surface friction, qualitative description of F. Nanson, quantitative model of V. W. Ekman, basic assumptions, structure of Ekman spiral; 4. surface circulations, correlation between global wind system and oceanic gyres, meso-scale eddies, meandering associated with west boundary currents, small-scale rings, thermocline circulations, deep ocean circulations; 5. continental shelf circulations, Zhejiang-Fujian Coast Current (influences from winds in winter time), East China Sea upwelling (in relation to the Kuroshio Current), estuarine gravitational circulation associated with the Changjiang River system, complexity of shelf circulations.l Lecture 4: Physical (Fluid Mechanics) Basis1. basic physical laws, conservation of mass, conservation of energy, Newtons Second Law, derivation of the equation of continuity, compressible and incompressible fluids, upwelling speed application of the continuity equation, formulation of the momentum equations (or equations of motion, Navier-Stokes equations), pressure, Coriolis force (angular velocity of rotation of the earth), gravity, friction; 2. Reynolds equations, the effect of averaging, Reynolds stress, diffusion analogy, turbulence and diffusion/mixing coefficients, the effect of spatial and temporal scales, the techniques of scaling; 3. benthic boundary layer, Von Krmn-Prandtl equation, theory of mixing length, shear stress, shear velocity, roughness length, velocity profile method.l Lecture 5: Tides1. ideas in early times, Newtons equilibrium tide theory, tide generating force, flood and ebb, tide range, spring and neap tides, semidiurnal and diurnal tides, Laplace and the dynamic theory, Laplace Tidal Equations (LTE, continuity and momentum equations); 2. tidal water level analysis and prediction, tide gauge measurements, harmonic analysis, tidal species, mathematical principle, formulation of tide tables for harbours with and without water level records, numerical models, co-tidal charts, Form Ratio, type of tides; 3. tidal currents, rotatory and rectilinear currents, residual currents, tidal boundary layer, tidal bores; 4. characteristics of tides in shallow waters and coastal embayments, amphidromic points, Kelvin waves, Corisolis effect, shallow water tides (overtides), time-velocity asymmetry patterns in tidal inlets and tidal flat systems.l Lecture 6: Storm Surges1. magnitude and effect of storms surges, tropical cyclones, winter depressions, positive and negative surges, surges in the North Sea and the Bay of Bangal, effect of a cold outbreak event at Yuehu (Shandong Peninsula); 2. controlling factors of the surge, influences of air pressure, influences of wind stress, theory and method of prediction, effect of seabed morphology; 3. mechanisms of storm surge induced disasters, surges in combination with tides and waves, effects of tides, impact on the design of sea dykes, the generation of waves, wave height, wave period, wave length, fetch, wind speed, wind duration, wave breaking, zero-crossing period, over-topping; 4. prediction of surges, relation to storm system movement, difficulty in typhoon route forecast, historical explorations, the studies of J. Proudman, J. Rossiter and N. Heaps.l Lecture 7: Mid-Ocean Ridges1. significance of the mid-ocean ridges within the global perspective, oceanic and continental crusts, continental drift theory, A. Wegener, Edward Bullard, plate tectonics, H. Hess, R. S. Dietz, sea-floor spreading, F. J. Vine, G. Matthews, D. P. McKenzie, X. Le Pichon, transaction from the ridges to abyssal plain, continental margin, transform faults, J. T. Wilson; 2. methods of research, geophysical survey (seismic, gravitational, magnetic and thermal observations), refraction and reflection methods, geoid and Clairaut ellipsoid, gravitational anomaly, free-air and Bouguer anomalies, magnetic anomalies, thermal flux, geochemistry (tracing, elemental analyses), geology (mineralogy, rock types, sequence, sedimentary structures); 3. window to look at the interior of earth, distribution and morphological features of the ridges, “thermal subsidence”, origin of (igneous, metamorphic, basaltic, andesitic, granitic) rocks and magma, crust-mantle interactions, ophiolites containing information of the interior; 4. hydrothermal vent biology, hydrothermal flux, deep water ecosystem, species composition, search for early lives on the earth.l Lecture 8: Marginal Seas1. concepts by Ph. H. Kuenen, continental margins, passive and active margins, broad and narrow definitions, epicontinental seas, deep-sea troughs, distributions, western Pacific marginal seas; 2. geomorphological features, Benioff zone, sea trench, island arc, back arc basins, sediment deposition, earthquakes, volcano epruptions; 3. evolution, study by D. E. Karig, Mesozoic basement, oceanic and continental crusts, magnetic features, history of expansion, continental slopes, seismic records, the MARGINS science plan, rupturing continental crust, subduction factory, seismologic zone experiments, source to sink; 4. natural resources, petroleum and natural gass, methane hydrate, thermal minerals.l Lecture 9: Continental Shelves1. general characteristics, river input, land-ocean interaction, hydrodynamic forcing, sediment mobility; 2. sedimentary environments near the shoreline, river deltas (bottom set, fore set, top set, sediment sequence), beaches (beach ridges, sand dunes, surf zone, sediment distribution and sequence), barrier islands (morphology, effect of sea level rise), tidal flats (supratidal flats, intertidal flats, subtidal flats, sediment accumulation, transport by tidal currents), estuaries, tidal inlets (entrance channel, flood and ebb deltas, coastal embayments), salt-marshes, mangroves, coral and other reefs; 3. inner and outer shelves, relict sands, longitudinal and transverse bedforms, tidal sand ridges (linear sandbanks), modeling work of Huthnance, sand sheets, rectilinear and rotatory currents, dunes (sandwaves and mega-ripples), small scaled bedforms (current- and wave-induced ripples), Holocene mud deposits, the role of upwelling, carbonate deposits in warm and cold environments.l Lecture 10: Seawater Chemistry1. salts in seawater, major constituents, dissolved salts, the principle of constant proportion, comparison between seawater composition and river water composition, residence time, sources; 2. other constituents in seawater, concentrations in terms of mass and mol, conservative and non-conservative materials, minor constituents, nutrients, gases, trace elements, organic compounds, human-induced constituents; conservative constituents as tracers, estuarine mixing diagram, removal, adsorption, biological uptake, external sources, decomposition of organic matter.l Lecture 11: Biogeochemical Cycling1. concept of marine biogeochemical cycling, nutrients, particulate, dissolved, organic, inorganic, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, species; 2. CNP budgets, Redfield-Richards Ratio, POM, carbon cycling, volcanic release, fossil fuel, deforestation, photosynthesis, respiration, decay, solution, degassing, diffusion, circulation, remineralization, nitrogen cycling, fixation, weathering, assimilation, mineralization, denitrification, volatilization, phosphorus cycling, biological processes, fertilizers used on land, phosphorus limitation in the sea, eutrophication, oxygen depletion; 3. budgets of other biologically important elements, oxygen, burial of organic matter in relation to atmospheric oxygen content, sulfur, silica, siliceous tests, diatoms, radiolarian, opaline silica, calcium, biogenic calcite, oceanic sink.l Lecture 12: Primary Production and Red Tides1. marine ecosystems, primary production, energy fixation, methods of measurements, rate of carbon uptake, amount of biomass, oxygen produced, trophic level, autotrophs, phytoplankton, algae, chlorophyll, nutrient limitation experiment, global nitrogen and phosphorus limitation patterns, secondary production, heterotrophs, comparison with land ecosystems, productivity to living biomass ratio (B:P ratio), controlling factors (temperature and precipitation for land, nutrients for ocean), total productivity; 2. characteristics and processes, high productivity areas, estuarine waters, upwelling regions, coastal areas, nutrients supply, river input, river buoyant plumes and fronts, turbidity and transparency as a factor for estuarine primary production, photic zone, the role played by ocean currents and mixing process, input by upwelling and halocline circulation, input from coastal and seabed erosion; 3. concepts of red tides, harmful algal blooms, marine biotoxins, dinoflagellates, damage to trophic structure in marine ecosystems, human intoxication, shellfish poisoning, fish poisoning, influences upon the fishery and mariculture, observation of HABs, prediction of HAB events as a challenge to coastal oceanography.l Lecture 13: Marine Ecosystem Dynamics1. Definitions and methods, concept of dynamics, marine ecology, energy and mass flows, physical-biological coupling, spatial scales for modeling, micro-scale, boundary layer processes, mixing layers, shoreline processes, meso-scale, upwelling regions, frontal areas, tidal processes, macro-scale, effects of ocean basin circulation, effects of global climate changes; 2. model structure, physical oceanographic equations, particulate material transport equation, salt and heat transport equations, nutrient transport equations, primary and secondary productivity relationships, material and energy transfer in the food web, population composition, grazing relationships, empirical formulae; 3. examples, (a) spring bloom (Walsh et al., 1988), Mid-Atlantic Bight, barotropic flow field, nutrient supply from rivers and upwelling; spatial variations in primary production during February and April, materials for verification, (b) cod and haddock (Werner et al., 1996), larval distribution and potential recruitment, Georges Bank, losses due to starvation and transport by flow; 4. comparison between physical oceanographic and marine ecosystem models, procedures of verification, difference in the function of the two models, present status and future development, data requirement for verification, data assimilation.l Lecture 14: Guided DiscussionThe East China Sea is an important region for fishing grounds. The potential of fishery catch has been estimated on the basis of trophic relationships, and it has been believed that overfishing has taken place for many years since the mid-1970s. However, fishery catch of the region had increased rapidly between 1992 and 1998, and since 1998 the fishery catch has been maintained at a level of 5 to 6106 t yr-1. Thus, the supposed overfishing does not appear to affect the fishery catch. What are the reasons for such a discrepancy?主要参考与阅读资料：毕晓普, 1998. 应用海洋学. 海洋出版社, 北京, 279pp. Bishop J M, 1984. Applied oceanography. 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