应用语言学第七章课后习题答案.doc

Chapter 61. How are different types of learning related to learning English as a foreign language? Learning has been classified in many different ways .The most useful classification is based on the task of learning (i.e. what is being learned).Based on the nature of the learning task, three types of learning are identified :skill learning ,affective and social learning, and cognitive learning . Type 1,signal learning This is a somewhat specialized type of learning.It is called signal learning to emphasize that the learner is associating an already available response with a new signal or stimulus .One important characteristics of this type of learning is that it involves the Pavlovian conditioned response ,which is general ,diffuse ,and emotional.This kind of response has a truly “involuntary”character .A fear response ,for example,involves general ,diffuse activity including speeded heartbeat,constriction of blood vessels and other internal involuntary behavior .In our daily life, learning to respond to alarm clock bells or automobile horns falls into this type of learning . Type 2,stimulus-response learning Type 3 chaining Type 4 verbal association (or sequence) Type 5 multiple discrimination Type 6 concept learning Type 7 principle learning Type 8 problem-solving Language learning is a complex task which involves all these types of learning . For example,in learning the pronunciation of a second language,the learner is concerned with how to produce the appropriate sound patterns a sensorimotor skill or part of a skill.If the learner cannot distinguish two sounds and therefore cannot pronounce them,he needs to know the articulatory description of the two sounds .This involves conceptual learning.The actual learning of a second language is accompanied by emotional reactions, and entire learning experience may lead to a fixed constellation of likes and dislikes directed towards the language and the people speaking that language.2.Illustrate the general learning strategies with examples from yourself or your Students in learning English. ways in which a learner attempts to work out the meanings and uses of words, grammatical rules, and other aspects of a languagemetacognitive strategies :1.thinking about the mental processes used in the learning process2.monitoring learning while it is taking place, 3.evaluating learning after it has occurredA. advance organizersB. directed attentionC. selective attentionD. self-managementE. functional planningF. self-monitoringG. delayed productionH. self-evaluationcognitive strategies:processes and behavior which learners use to help them improve their ability to learn or remember something, particularly those which learners use with specific classroom tasks and activitiesA. repetitionB. Resourcing C. translationD. groupingsocioaffective strategies:social-mediating activity and transacting with others3.What are the major strategies employed by good students in your class? Tarone defines learning strategy as attempts to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language. The motivation for the use of learning strategy is the desire to learn the target language rather than the desire to communicate .Production strategies are used to accomplish communication goals;they reflect an interest in using the language system efficiently and clearly without excessive effort.Communication strategies are an adaptation to the failure to realize a language production goal.They therefore serve an important role in negotiating meaning between individuals. Rubin suggests that the good language learner :1)is a willing and accurate guesser2) has a strong drive to communicate 3)is often uninhibited about his weaknesses in the L2 and ready to risk making mistakes4)is willing to attend to form5)practices6)monitors7)attends to meaning in its social context Stern identifies four basic sets of strategies from the basic considerations and research of language learning:1)Active planning strategy Good language learners will select goals and subgoals,recoginize stages and developmental sequences and actively participate in the learning process2)”Academic “(explicit)learning strategy Good language learners are prepared to study and practice .They pay attention to the features of language as a formal system with rules and regular retationships between forms and meaning. 3)Social learning strategy Good language learners seek communicative contact with target language users and are active participants in authentic language use4)Affective language Good language learners can cope effective with the emotion and motivational problems of language learning .They approach the task of L2 learning in a positive frame of mind and cultivate positive attitudes towards themselves as language learner s, towards language and language learning in general,and towards the target language and its society and culture.4.What is the difference between learning strategy and learning style? There was significant difference between learning strategy and learning style.,but it simply existed in one type of learning strategy. Three learning styles (visual,auditory and kinesthetic)did not influence all the six types of learning strategies (memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective and social).The learning styles only influenced the use of social strategies. In addition ,after the Post Hoc Scheffe test,researchers found that learners with auditory learning styles use more social strategies than those with vusual learning style. In conclusion, the common element in all these styles involves the way people perceive problems and the effect this might have on the paths taken to a resolution.In this sense, learning styles are more general and abstract than learning strategies,for learning style refers to the way people perceive problems , whereas learning strategies refer to the paths they take to arrive at a solution of the problem.5.Discuss the relevance of the three pairs of learning styles to learning English as a foreign language. Field independence vs.field dependence A field-independent person tends to perceive analytically . That is ,he tends to perceive particular relevant items in a field as discrete from the field as a whole. A field-dependent person, on the other hand, tends to perceive globally; his perception tends to be dominated by the total field.As a result,the parts embedded in the field are not easily perceived. It has been found that field-dependent persons tends to show a strong social orientation; they are usually more empathetic and more perceptive of feelings of others. Field-independent persons , on the other hand, tend to show an “impersonal orientation”; they are generally individualistic and less aware of the things by which others are moved.Some researchers have found that the field-independent person is the better L2 learner because he will be better able to focus on the relevant variables in a language lesson or a conversation.Other researches, however, have found that field-dependent persons are superior L2 learners because of their social orientation. Brown speculates that field-independence may be more important in traditional classroom settings with a strong emphasis on analysis on analytical activities, whereas field dependence may be more important in the natural setting. In language learning it is often necessary to understand language items in their context and at the same time it is also necessary to classify the items out of that context to understand them paradigmatically . Therefore , the optimal degree of both may be necessary for successful language learning. Reflectivity vs.impulsivity The person who makes an impulsive, off-hand response is an impulsive, whereas the one who is prepared to pause and reflect on the mature of a question and the accuracy of the answer is a reflective . Reflectives tend to be more anxious about the quality of their performance and more capable of sustained attention than impulsives. It has been found that impulsive learners make more errors in L2 reading than reflective learners but they are faster readers. However , Hewett has found that subjects who rate themselves more frflective athan impulsive achieve significantly better reading scores.Kagan et al. have found that inductive reasoning seems to be more effective with reflective learners. Broad vs.narrow category width It has been found that L2 learners who are broad categorizers tend to overgeneralize rules they have learned because they tend to subsume too many items under one rule,whereas narrow categorizers have difficulty in making generalizations, which are necessary for efficient L2 learning,because they tend to create a rule for every item. Naiman et al. have hypothesized that the best language lcarners would be those who neither generalize too much nor too little. That is to say, both operations are needed under different circu