【机械类毕业论文中英文对照文献翻译】切削温度：预测和测量方法
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Journal of Materials Processing Technology 88 (1999) 195202Cutting temperature: prediction and measurement methodsa reviewMarcio Bacci da Silva *, James WallbankDepartment of Engineering, Uni6ersity of Warwick, Co6entry CV4 7AL, UKReceived 12 November 1997AbstractThe power consumed in metal cutting is largely converted into heat. Several attempts have been made to predict thetemperatures involved in the process as a function of many parameters, as well as many experimental methods to measuretemperature directly. Some simple analytical models can be used to show the effects of cutting parameters, such as cutting speedand feed rate. There is no precise experimental method that can be used to check the analytical results. This paper presents areview of the analytical and experimental methods used to measure cutting temperature. Some experimental results using differentmethods are presented. 1999 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.Keywords:metal cutting; machining temperature; manufacture1. IntroductionMachining is probably the most widely used processof manufacturing, and metals and alloys form the bulkof the materials used in this process. Therefore, thesubject of metal cutting has been the focus of manyresearchers and has produced many publications. Sinceman started to machine these materials, many problemshave arisen and many solutions and ideas have beenproposed. Great progress has been achieved in increas-ing the metal removal rate and reducing the costs.Increasing the metal removal rate means that morematerial can be cut in a shorter time and this has beenachieved by increasing the cutting speed, the feed rateand the depth of cut. To do this in an economical waydepends on many areas related with metal cutting,namely the machine tool, the cutting tool, the cuttingfluid and the materials.With respect to machine tools, it is necessary toincrease power and accuracy. At the same time, theyare developed in such way as to facilitate their opera-tion, change of cutting conditions, and change of cut-ting tool and workpiece. Some cutting tool materialsthat are brittle, such as ceramics, need to be used onrigid machines.The increase in power to remove more material in ashorter time increases the heat generation near thecutting edge of the tool, and the power consumed inmetal cutting is largely converted into heat 1,2. Thisheat is dissipated by the four systems processing thematerial: the cutting tool, the workpiece, the chipformed and the cutting fluid.This means that the cutting tool needs to supporthigher temperatures at acceptable wear rates. Normally,the temperature achieved by the cutting tool is thefactor that limits the rate of machining. This taskforced the development of new materials for cuttingtools that can resist high temperatures. Moreover, insome operations that have an interrupted cut, such asin milling, the tool has to resist a thermal cycle andmechanical shock and needs to have good toughness tosupport high cutting speeds.The cutting fluids used with some cutting operationsplay a very important role and many operations cannotbe carried out efficiently without a fluid. Among theirfunctions 3, cutting fluids are used to cool the tool,workpiece and machine tool. They may act as a lubri-cant at the interface of the tool and the chip 4,depending on the conditions. At high cutting speeds, it* Tel.: +44-01203-522305.E-mail address:esrngeng.warwick.ac.uk (M. Bacci da Silva)0924-0136/99/$ - see front matter 1999 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.PII: S0924-0136(98)00395-1M. Bacci da Sil6a, J. Wallbank/Journal of Materials Processing Technology88 (1999) 195202196is unlikely that the fluid reaches this interface and somedifferent form of application has been experimentedwith 5, as well as the use of other methods of lubrica-tion, e.g. using gases 6. If the fluid acts as a coolant,it will remove heat from the cutting zone, whereas if itfluid acts as a lubricant, it will decrease the amount ofwork performed and thus the heat generation. Bothways of acting serve to reduce the temperature.The development of new materials and alloys forcedthe development of new cutting tool materials. More-over, in respect of the work material, much has beendone to decrease the wear rate of tools through alloyingwith certain materials. These materials behave like asolid lubricant at the interface between the tool and thechip, decreasing the stress and heat generation, and thecutting force, thus decreasing the work done 7. Sul-phur and lead are the main materials used to alloy steel,which additions also promote other advantages, such asmore easily handled chips, for example.The influence on tool life of cutting temperature hasbeen the subject of the major part of the work carriedout on metal cutting, but the heat generated may alsoaffect the surface integrity of the workpiece, for exam-ple. These effects may be more important than the toollife 8,9.As temperature is of fundamental importance inmetal cutting operations, many attempts have beenmade to predict it. Some works simply use a relation-ship between the work done and the volume of metalinvolved in the process to obtain an average tempera-ture. Others use computers to help to give the distribu-tion of temperature. The methods used to measuretemperature in metal cutting have not been improvedso much, so that it is difficult to prove the theoreticalresults in a precise manner.In this work, a qualitative comparison is made be-tween some experimental results obtained by severalmethods available in the vast literature relating to thissubject and some results obtained when a theoreticalmethod is applied.Good agreement is obtained between experimentaland theoretical results for some conditions, at least forthose regions where it is possible to use an experimentaltechnique. The behaviour of the material that is beingcut and its properties are the main factors responsiblefor possible errors in theoretical predictions.The next sections of this work will present what isknown about heat generation during cutting, the exper-imental methods used to measure temperature in cut-ting and the analytical theories used to calculate thetemperature and the gradient of the temperature. Somepractical results are presented to show how temperatureis affected by the cutting conditions and comparison ismade with theoretical results.2. Heat generation in metal cuttingNearly all the work which takes place in the processof metal cutting is converted into heat. This is becausethere is friction to be overcome. In a simple manner,the total work carried out can be divided into threequantities: (i) work to shear the material to form thechip and the new surface; (ii) work to move the chipover the rake surface of the tool; and (iii) the worknecessary to move the freshly-cut surface over the flankface of the tool. The work to shear the material to formthe chip involves the dissipation of heat resulting frominternal friction, while the other two are necessary toovercome the friction between the tool and chip orworkpiece, which may involve internal friction becauseof seizure between the surfaces.The work done will depend on the material being cut.Ductility, hardness, work hardening and thermal prop-erties all have definite effects on the tool forces, as wellas affecting the temperature. These properties, in addi-tion to the tool material characteristics, cutting condi-tions and geometry of the process, will define the powerand therefore, the heat generation.In early works concerning the relationship betweenthe chip geometry, the power consumption and thecutting parameters 1013, the formation of chips wasconsidered as being shearing on a simple and welldefined plane, and the generation of heat on the rakeface was treated on the basis of classical friction theory.The work done on the flank face of the tool was takeninto account only if there was flank wear. The resultsare a good indication of the influence of some parame-ters, such as the rake angle and the cutting speed.However, the shearing action cannot be treated as asimple plane. Likewise, what happens on the rake sur-face of the tool is complex and cannot be treated asclassical friction because of the high stress acting on thetool surface 14,15.As has been shown 1618, the heat generated at thetoolwork interface is of major importance in relationto the tool performance, and is particularly significantin limiting the rates of metal removal. Along the greaterpart of the contact between the chip and the tool, thereis a seizure zone where these two materials are in closecontact. There is no relative movement between thechip and the tool at the surface of the tool and,depending on the cutting speed, a flow zone in the chipwith great strains and strain rates or a built-up edge(for low cutting speed) is established.Contact between the work material and the flank faceof the tool will occur even for a tool without wear, andmay contribute to an increase in the work temperature.The movement of the freshly-cut surface over the flankface of the tool may be treated in the same manner,depending on the cutting conditions and the tool wearrate. In this case the contact length is shorter.M. Bacci da Sil6a, J. Wallbank/Journal of Materials Processing Technology88 (1999) 195202197When a built-up edge is formed, the heat generationdue to the movement of the chip is a short distanceabove the flank face. The size and stability of thebuilt-up edge is controlled by the temperature on thechiptool interface 2. In this case, the main conse-quence is the poor surface finish obtained on the work-piece, which is a factor to be observed in addition tothe tool wear mechanism. A schematic diagram of asingle-point cutting operation without a built-up edge isshown in Fig. 1.Using cine-photography to observe the cutting pro-cess, Palmer and Oxley 19 found that when mild steelwas machined at low speeds, the primary deformationzone had the form shown in Fig. 1. In the work ofTrent 4, there is evidence of zone (iii), but not as aprolongation of zone (i).Heat is dissipated by the cutting tool, the chipformed, the cutting fluid and the workpiece. Therefore,it is evident that the tool is heated as well the work-piece, and this is fundamental to the process. Thegreater part of the heat is due to work done in chipformation, with most of this heat passing into the chip,while a proportion is conducted into the work material.This proportion may be higher for low rates of metalremoval and small shear zone angles, but for high ratesof metal removal this proportion is small.Boothroyd 20 proposed a method for calculatingthe approximate mean temperature rise in the body ofthe chip from the measurement of tool forces, knowl-edge of the cutting parameters and data for the thermalproperties of the work material. Again, it is assumedthat the shear zone (i) is a plane and that the chiptemperature is independent of the work done in (ii).According to this, the cutting speed does not have agreat effect on chip temperature. This may suggest thatthere is not an increase in the heat in this zone, or thatthe chip lost heat to the workpiece or tool.It is unlikely that heat is lost by the chip to the tool,because the temperatures in the tool are higher thanthose in the body of the chip. This is why the toolwork interface is more important in respect to the metalremoval rate. Most of the heat generated in this regiontravels into the tool and chip and as the tool is station-ary, its temperature is higher. A cutting fluid used inthiscasewillshowlittleornoeffectontooltemperature.The heat generated at the toolwork interface willalso be lost to the tool holder, which can affect thedimensional accuracy of the workpiece. Depending onthe temperatures achieved and the material of the toolholder, there can be dilation inf the order of 30 mm 21,thus affecting the accuracy of the operation. In thiscase, cutting fluid is effective.The increase in the temperature of the workpiece isdue to the work done in zones (i) and (iii) in Fig. 1.These temperatures may affect the dimensional accu-racy of the workpiece, because the thermal deformationmay cause positional errors between the cutting tooland the surface 22,23.The heat generation during interrupted cutting is animportant parameter for tool life control. The heat isgenerated in the same manner, but the changes in thetemperature are cyclical, increasing during the activetime and decreasing during the inactive time 2427.This fluctuation causes thermal fatigue of the cuttingtool and the impact of the tool contributes to increasingthe possibility of failure 28,29.3. Temperature measurement in metal cuttingThe difficulties in calculating the temperatures andgradients of temperatures in the cutting zone, even forsimple conditions, emphasise the practical methods formeasuring temperatures.In order to evaluate the temperatures arising in thecutting zones, several techniques have been developedover the past 70 years 30. Most of these techniques areused to measure the temperature of the cutting tool.The most extensively used method is the toolworkthermocouple 2,31. This method is useful in showingthe effect of cutting conditions, such as cutting speedand feed rate, but the absolute values are inaccurate. Inthis method, the thermo-electric emf generated betweenthe tool and the workpiece during cutting is measured.The cutting zone forms the hot junction, while anelectrical connection to a cold part of the tool and theworkpiece forms the cold junction. The tool and work-piece need to be electrically insulated from the machinetool. The difficulty of this method is concerned with thenecessity for an accurate calibration of the tool andworkpiece materials as a thermocouple pair 32,33.A temperature gradient exists along the contact ofthe tool with the chip and it is uncertain whether thethermocouple is measuring the lowest temperature atthis interface, or a mean value. Accordingly 34, thequantity measured in the toolwork thermocoupleFig. 1. Heat generation zones in orthogonal cutting.M. Bacci da Sil6a, J. Wallbank/Journal of Materials Processing Technology88 (1999) 195202198method is the average thermo-electric emf at the inter-face between the tool and the workpiece. In general,this emf does not correspond to the average interfacialtemperature, this being the case only if the temperatureis uniform or if the thermo-electric emf of the toolworkmaterialcombinationvarieslinearlywithtemperature.Another method used to measure the temperatureand gradients in the tool is that of inserted thermocou-ples 35. Using thermocouples of small diameter, it ispossible to obtain good results in relation to the tem-perature gradients in the tool by means of many smallholes in different positions. The disadvantage here isthat it is impossible to put thermocouples very near thecuttingedgewheretherearehightemperaturegradients.With most tool materials, such as ceramics used inhigh-speed cutting, the brittleness and electrical resis-tance are significant and make it difficult to implementa contact-type sensor such as that described above 36.A very interesting method was developed to measurethe temperature in the flank face of the tool using wireof a material different from that of the workpiece andthe tool 37. This wire is inserted into the workpieceinto a hole of a small diameter and is insulated. Whenthe material is been cut, this wire will also be machined,and when this happens a thermocouple is formed be-tween the wire and the tool. With regard to the resultsobtained, the temperature of the tool flank face isaffected little by the cutting speed, feed rate and depthof cut. For carbon steel, for example, the temperatureobtained was about 400C, independent of the toolmaterial. The temperatures obtained by this method arelower than when using the toolwork thermocouplemethod. The errors in this method arise from theuncertainty as to what happens in the cutting zonewhen it is touched by the thermocouple. Moreover, theduration of the contact is very short.A method was developed by Kato et al. 38 tomeasure tool temperature distribution within the toolby means of fine powers that have a constant meltingpoint. The tool was divided into two symmetrical partsparallel to the chip flow direction and fine powderswere scattered on one side of the divided surfaces. Thetools were then put together and used to cut. Thetemperature distribution is obtained using differentpowders and observations of the extent of the meltedareas. Some results using this method show that thetemperature tends to be absorbed gradually at a pointaway from the cutting edge, but very rapidly at thecutting edge, the time required being about 12 min.The temperature gradient obtained was little differentfrom that obtained using other methods.The temperature distribution in the tool may beobtained by using information about the changes in thehardness and microstructure of the steel tool 39. It isnecessary to calibrate the hardness of the tool againstthe temperature and time of heating, and samples ofstructuralchangesatcorrespondingtemperatures.These methods permit measurement of temperatures toan accuracy of 925C within the heat-affected region.However, these methods are arduous and difficult touse 40.The technique of measuring temperature by the mea-surement of radiation is sometimes very useful in ob-taining the surface temperature of the workpiece, thechip and the tool 4146. This method gives informa-tion only about the temperature on exposed surfaces,although some experimental techniques attempted tomeasure the temperature distribution on the flank orthe rake face of the tool through small holes in theworkpiece 47,48. However, these holes change theprocess to interrupted cutting, and it is doubtful if thetemperature measured is the same as that for non-inter-rupted cutting.The radiation methods are very complicated andsuitable only for laboratory studies. Extreme care isrequired in assembling and using the radiation pyrome-ter 49 and the minimum temperature detectable is alimiting factor for the use of these set-ups. Today thereare more simple infrared sensors with quick responsesand there are no minimum temperatures for applicationin metal cutting.A recent application to use an infrared sensor tomeasure the temperature of the machined surface dur-ing cutting has been published 50. Basically themethod consists of measuring the temperature on themachined surface just below the cutting edge. Thetemperature is measured at 3, 6 and 9 mm below thecutting and then the results are used to extrapolate tothe cutting edge. The method, first developed for dryconditions, is modified to be used when cutting fluid isapplied. Some results using such methods are presentedin Section 5.Another method involving the use of thermo-sensi-tive paints gives results, but they are not considered tobe accurate 42.4. Analytical models of temperature distributionThere are many analytical treatments 2,5153, thefinite-element method 36,5461 and the boundary-ele-ment method 62, of heat conduction with moving orstationary heat sources, together with the kinematics,geometry and energetic aspects of the metal cuttingprocess.In the analytical models, it is often assumed that thechip is formed instantaneously by a shearing action in aplane (shear zone). In addition, the chiptool interfaceis assumed to be a uniform plane with the heat gener-ated being due to friction between the two surfaces. TheM. Bacci da Sil6a, J. Wallbank/Journal of Materials Processing Technology88 (1999) 195202199analyses of Loewen and Shaw 51 assumes that shearand frictional energy is distributed uniformly, and thatthere is no redistribution of the thermal shear energygoing to the chip during the very short time that thechip is in contact with the tool. The relative importanceof the several variables influencing tool face tempera-tures is discussed. The results explained the high tem-peraturesthatareobservedinthemachiningoftitanium alloys.In the work by Stephenson 52, relaxation methodsare applied to the workpiece and shear-plane tempera-ture problem, and were able to solve numerically theequation for heat transfer in a material moving in adirection perpendicular to a stationary heat source. Thecomplete temperature distribution in the workpiece andchip was obtained. Lo Casto et al. 53assumed that theheat transferred by conduction in the direction of mo-tion of the workpiece or chip may be neglected, thussolving the same equation. The finite-element analysesof Lo Casto et al. 53 accounts for the primary andsecondary zones being finite in size, and obtained tem-peratures for the workpiece lower than those found byStephenson 52.Using finite-element analyses, Muraka et al. 56 in-vestigated the influence of several process variables onthe temperature distributions on the tool flank face andrake face. The rate generation was calculated usingsome experimental methods to measure strain in theprimary and secondary deformation zones. An empiri-cal expression was used to relate the flow stress of thematerial being cut and the strain, strain rate and tem-perature; errors may arise in the results due to thismeasurement and estimating. The results obtained arevery interesting, and show the effects of the mainvariables. For example, the highest temperature alongthe tool flank, similar to that along the tool face, occursat some distance from the cutting edge and increaseswith cutting speed and feed rate. According to Chanand Chandra 63, the calculation of thermal energyfrom frictional resistance is affected by a number offactors. Material properties are constantly changingand difficulties also arise when attempting to quantifythe real area of contact.Simon 6 analysed the dependency of the thermalfailure of a cutting tool on a temperature gradient. It issuggested that by cooling the lower face of the tool it ispossible to increase the temperature gradient of thecutting surface, thus decreasing the wear level of thetool. The effect of the contact between the tool and theworkpiece is considered only if there is flank wear.All of these works are very fundamental and usepowerful tools. The results give an excellent idea of theinfluence and importance of the parameters involved inthe process. It is difficult, however, to confirm thesemodels by experimental methods.Fig. 2. Effect of cutting speed, feed and cutting fluid on temperature64.5. Temperature and cutting conditionsThe major part of the work regarding temperature inmetal cutting has been focused on the tool temperatureand on analytical models, this being due to the wear oftools having been the concern of many researchers;wear is sensitive to the temperature in the cutting zone.The temperature in the cutting zone will be affectedby the cutting conditions: the cutting speed, the feedrate, the depth of cut and the tool geometry. It will alsodepend on the properties of the workpiece material, aswell as on the physical properties of the tool. There arenumerous results in the literature, both analytical andexperimental, regarding the influence of the cuttingconditions on the temperature of the tool, the work-piece or the chip. The temperature increases becausemore heat is being generated and/or is concentrated ina small area an/or less heat is being dissipated. Accord-ing to this the effect of the cutting conditions (cuttingspeed, feed rate and depth of cut) will be to increase thetemperature. Less obvious effects are those of the toolgeometry, the material (workpiece, tool) and the cuttingfluid.Using the toolwork thermocouple method, resultswere obtained 64 (shown in Fig. 2) for a low-alloyengineering steel machined with cemented carbide tools.Temperature was measured as a function of cuttingspeed for three different feed rates and compared withthe results for dry cutting and cutting using water as thecutting fluid. The results give a good idea about thevalues of temperature achieved by the tool, as well asthe effect of some cutting conditions. The water usedacts as a coolant and its effect decrease as the cuttingspeed increases. As the temperature affects the proper-ties of the material, the latter becomes easily deformedat higher temperatures. When cutting fluid is used, itchanges the properties of the material in the samemanner. It seems that an equilibrium is achieved be-tween the effect of the cutting fluid and the heatgeneration for these cutting conditions.M. Bacci da Sil6a, J. Wallbank/Journal of Materials Processing Technology88 (1999) 195202200The same trend can be obtained using a simpleanalytical method to determine the approximate tem-perature at the chiptool interface 51. The heat in thisregion came from the work performed to move the chipover the flank face, so there is a contribution fromseizure zones and sliding zones. Errors will arise fromthe fact that it is impossible to distinguish betweenthese two regions and the need to measure the strain inthe seizure zone. The method used to obtain the sampleto measure these strain is the quick-stop method, whichconsists of a device to disengage the tool very quicklywhile it is cutting. This enables the freezing of thecutting zone, but some damage is done. Both experi-mental and analytical methods are affected by thepresence of a built-up edge.Some works usied metallographic techniques andchanges in the hardness of the tool to show the distri-bution of temperature in the tool. According to theseresults, the maximum temperature on the rake face onthe tool is remote from the cutting edge. An example isshown in Fig. 3. In Usui et al. 65, the same model oftemperature distribution was obtained, i.e. higher tem-peratures on the rake face of the tool are remote fromthe cutting edge.A similar distribution is obtained when finite-elementmodels are applied. The maximum temperature is atsome distance from the cutting edge and a good agree-ment is obtained with the experimental results 57. Thedifference in terms of distribution patterns is at theregion near the cutting edge, where the calculation giveslower values for temperatures.These distributions of temperature have been ex-plained in terms of the seizure zone of the cutting toolinterface. According to 4, the formation of a crater onthe rake face of the tool will start in the region ofhigher temperature. This happens for many materialsand cutting conditions, although for some materialsthere is a great difference from the above model. Fig. 4shows the results using the same method for high-con-ductivity copper.The results can be explained by the ductility of thecopper being high and the seizure zone, if formed,extending from the cutting edge of the tool. Generally,the results have shown that for a fixed combination oftool and workpiece, the tool temperature will be af-Fig. 4. Distribution of temperature on the rake face of the tool whencutting high-conductivity copper 4.fected by the extent of the contact length between thechip and the tool. The temperature will increase withthe contact length. Consequently, the parameters thataffect this zone will affect the temperature 42. Alubricant, for example, will affect the temperature atthe interface if it decreases the seizure zone.Fig. 5 represents the results obtained by Machado etal. 66, where the effect of the contact length betweenthe chip and the tool was studied for the orthogonalcutting of aluminium. The cutting conditions weremaintained constants (cutting speed 120 m min1,depth of cut 1.59 mm) and the different contactslengths were obtained by means of restriction of theflank face of the tool. These results can be comparedwith the effect of seizure-zone size, which means that ifa lubricant is achieved in the toolchip interface, theeffect will be a drop in the heat generation and adecrease in temperature.Using the infrared sensor mentioned in Section 3, thetemperature on the machined surface for the dry cut-ting of an AISI1040 steel was measured; the results arepresented in Fig. 6. To obtain the temperature close tothe cutting edge by extrapolation, measurement at atleast three different positions is needed. Fig. 6(a) showsthe variation in temperature after the start of thecutting for 3 mm below the cutting edge using Vc=40m min1, f=0.15 mm rev1and depth of cut=2 mm.Fig. 5. Temperature for different contact lengths and feed rates 66.Fig. 3. Distribution of temperature on the rake face of a tool 4.M. Bacci da Sil6a, J. Wallbank/Journal of Materials Processing Technology88 (1999) 195202201Fig. 6. Temperature on the surface of AISI1040 steel machined at 40m min1and three different feed rates: (a) temperature duringcutting at 0.15 mm rev1and 3 mm below the cutting edge; (b)extrapolation of the results 50.chiptool interface, and for this the toolwork thermo-couple is the best method. It gives the aspect of thetemperature trend with the cutting parameters, such ascutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut.The infrared method gives a good indication of themaximum temperature of the workpiece as well as itscooling rate.Through the measurement of force and strain, it ispossible to estimate the work carried out during cut-ting. The temperatures achieved by the system can becalculated with a rough approximation, consideringthat this work done is converted into heat that isdissipated by the tool, the chip and the workpiece. Theapplication of a cutting fluid to the system adds moredifficulty to the problem of measuring temperature.References1 M.B. Bever, E.R. Marshall, L.B. Ticknor, The energy stored inmetal chips during orthogonal cutting, J. Appl. Phys. 24 (1953)11761179.2 M.C. Shaw, Metal Cutting Principles, Oxford University Press,London, ISBN 0-19-859002-4, 1984, 594 pp.3 M.F. Motta, A.R. Machado, Fluidos de Corte: Tipos, Funco es,Selec a o, Me todos de Aplicac a o e Manutenc a o, Ma quinas eMetais (Sept. 1995) pp. 4456 (in Portuguese).4 E.M. Trent, Metal Cutting, 2nd ed., Butterworths, London,ISBN 0-408-10856, 1984, 245 pp.5 A.R. Machado, Machining of Ti6A14V and inconel 901 with ahigh pressure coolant system, PhD thesis, University of War-wick, England, UK, 1990.6 A.T. Simon, Regrigerante para Usinagem: O L quido e Substitu- do pelo Ar, Ma quinas e Metais, (Feb. 1992) (in Portuguese).7 M.L.H. Wise, R. Milovic, Ranges of application of free-cuttingsteel and recommended tool materials, Mater. Sci. Technol. 4(1988) 933943.8 K. Nakayama, M.C. Shaw, R.C. Brewer, Relationship betweencutting forces, temperature, built-up edge and surface finish,Ann. CIRP 14 (1966) 211223.9 A.C. Shouckry, The effect of cutting conditions on dimensionalaccuracy, Wear 80 (1982) 197205.10 M.E. Merchant, M. Field, Mechanics of formation of the dis-continuous chip in metal cutting, Trans. ASME 71 (1949) 421.11 V. Pispanem, Theory of formation of metal chips, J. Appl. Phys.19 (1948) 876881.12 M.E. Merchant, Mechanics of the metal cutting process. I Or-thogonal cutting and a type 2 chip, J. Appl. Phys. 16 (5) (1945).13 Machinability, Proc. Conf. on Mechanical Engineering, Proc.Inst. Mech. Eng., London, 155 (1946) 233291.14 N.N. Zorev, Interrelationship between shear processes occurringalong tool face and on shear plane in metal cutting, Int. Prod.Eng. Res. Conf., ASME, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, Sept.912, 1963, pp. 4249.15 E. Usui, T. Shirakashi, Analytical prediction of cutting toolwear, Wear 100 (1984) 129151.16 E.M. Trent, Metal cutting and the tribology of seizure: I. Seizurein metal cutting, Wear 128 (1988) 2945.17 E.M. Trent, Metal cutting and the tribology of seizure: II.Movement of work material over the tool in metal cutting, Wear128 (1988) 4664.18 E.M. Trent, Metal cutting and the tribology of seizure: III.Temperatures in metal cutting, Wear 128 (1988) 6581.According to the graph, the temperature stabilisedabout 30 s after the start of the cut. During the test, thetemperatures were recorded each second, the final tem-perature being 89C in this case. For the same condi-tions at 6 and 9 mm, the temperature was 68 and53C, respectively. Using these values, the temperatureclose to the cutting edge was extrapolated and the finalresult was 113C. Fig. 6(b) shows the extrapolationcurves for three feed rates, 0.15, 0.1 and 0.05 mmrev1. Using the measurements of temperature at thethree different position, it is possible to calculate theaverage cooling rate of the workpiece. In this case, itwill be: 4667, 2222 and 2889C s1for 0.15, 0.1 and0.05 mm rev1, respectively.6. ConclusionsThe main signals that can be measured in a metalcutting operation are force, surface roughness, chipdimensions, strain, tool wear and temperature. Amongthese, the temperature is the most difficult to measure,which explains the numbers of different methods usedover the years.The majority of methods used to measure the tem-perature are concerned with the temperature at theM. Bacci da Sil6a, J. Wallbank/Journal of Materials Processing Technology88 (1999) 19520220219 W.B. Palmer, P.L.B. Oxley, Mechanics of orthogonal machining,Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. 173 (1959) 623651.20 G. Boothroyd, Fundamentals of Metal Machining and MachineTools, International Student ed., 5th printing, McGraw-Hill, NewYork, ISBN 0-07-085057-7, 1981.21 T.H.C. Childs, K. Maekawa, P. Maulik, Effects of coolant ontemperature distribution in metal machining, Mater. Sci. Technol.4 (1988) 10061019.22 K.L. Chandiramani, N.H. Cook, Investigation on the nature ofsurface finish and its variation with cutting speed, J. Eng. Ind.(1964) 134140.23 J. Peklenik, J.R. Gartner, Workpiece accuracy criterion for thedynamic machine tool acceptance test, Int. J. Mach. Tool Des.Res. 7 (1967) 303324.24 S.M. Bathia, P.C. Pandey, H.S. Shaw, The thermal condition ofthetoolcuttingedgeinintermittentcutting,Wear61(1986)2130.25 G. Chakraverti, P.C. Pandey, N.K. Mehta, Analysis of tooltemperature fluctuation in interrupted cutting, Precis. Eng. 6 (2)(1984) 99105.26 K.K. Wang, K.C. Tsao, S.M. Wu, Investigation of face-millingtool temperatures by simulation techniques, J. Eng. Ind. (1969)772780.27 Z. Palmai, Cutting temperature in intermittent cutting, Int. J.Mach. Tools Manuf. 27 (2) (1987) 261274.28 N.N. Zorev, K.A. Sawiaskin, Carbide tool life at interrupted cutwith continuous cycles, Russ. Eng. J. 43 (2) (1963) 4347.29 A.J. Pekelharing, The exit failure in interrupted cutting, Ann.CIRP 27 (1978) 510.30 G. Byrne, Thermoelectric singnal characteristics and averageinterfacial temperatures in the machining of metals under geomet-rically defined conditions, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 27 (2) (1987)215224.31 E.G. Herbert, The measurement of cutting temperatures, Proc.Inst. Mech. Eng. 1 (1926) 289329.32 P.M. Braiden, The Calibration of Tool/Work Thermocouples,Proc. 8th Int. MTDR Conf., Manchester, Sept. 1967, Pergamon,Oxford, 1968, pp. 653666.33 B. Alvelid, Cutting temperature thermo-electrical measurements,Ann. CIRP 18 (1970) 547554.34 D.A. Stephenson, Toolwork thermocouple temperature mea-surementstheory and implementation issues, Trans. ASME, J.Eng. Ind. 115 (1993) 432437.35 A.H. Qureshi, F. Koenigsberger, An investigation into the prob-lem of measuring the temperature distribution on the rake face ofa cutting tool, Ann. CIRP 14 (1966) 189199.36 J. Lin, S.L. Lee, C.I. Weng, Estimation of cutting temperature inhigh speed machining, Trans. ASME-JEMT 114 (1993) 289296.37 M. Hirao, Determining temperature distribution on flank face ofcutting tool, J. Mater. Shap. Technol. 6 (3) (1989) 143148.38 S. Kato, K. Yamaguchi, Y. Watanabe, Y. Hiraiwa, Measurementof temperature distribution within tool using powders of constantmelting point, J. Eng. Ind. (1976) 607613.39 E.F. Smart, E.M. Trent, Temperature distribution in tools usedforcuttingiron,titaniumandnickel,Int.J.Prod.Res.13(3)(1975)265290.40 P.K. Wright, Correlation of tempering effects with temperaturedistribution in steel cutting tools, J. Eng. Ind. 100 (1978) 131136.41 G. Boothroyd, Photographic technique for the determination ofmetal cutting tempe
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