【机械类毕业论文中英文对照文献翻译】市场分化
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机械类毕业论文中英文对照文献翻译
机械类
毕业论文
中英文
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文献
翻译
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【机械类毕业论文中英文对照文献翻译】市场分化,机械类毕业论文中英文对照文献翻译,机械类,毕业论文,中英文,对照,文献,翻译,市场,分化
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中英文翻译1. Market Fragmentation(1) Markets of all kinds are fragmenting at what seems like an accelerating pace. Magazines, beer, soft drinks, and snack foods; radio stations and cable TV channels; audio and Video equipment; cameras, fax machines and copiers, printers, and scanners; appliances, clothing, and financial, shopping, and business services all come in a bewildering array.The sane banking, credit, and investment services may be priced differently depending on age, credit, history, number of accounts, level of account activity, or size of balance.(2)Companies are “sneakerizing” their products, transforming them from relatively low-priced commodities to relatively high-priced specialty items. Sneakers used to be general-purpose, inexpensive mass-market commodities. But sneakers are, as they say, historyand thus candidates for resurrection as higher-priced, nostalgia products in a niche market! Sneakers have been replaced by “sport shoes” special-purpose, expensive, occupying niche markets and yet produced in large volume.Supported by aggressive and bole advertising appealing to the emotions, what had been an inexpensive, practical, low-margin commodity has been transformed into a specialty product, associated with “image” and produced in large volume for numerous niche markets, the selling price determined by the extent to which the individual customer feels enriched by the purchase.Because manufacturing and information technologies are making it possible to diversify both products and services at little additional cost over mass production, the profitability of customer-enrichment pricing strategies can be very highfor a while. At the same time, however, and for the same reasons, imitation of highly successful products and services is inevitable, because the technologies for designing, producing, and delivering goods and services are almost universally available, And with the imitation comes great downward pressure on prices and profits precisely because of the wide gap between production costs and selling price. When Motorolas MicroTac cellular telephone was introduced in 1989, it carried a retail priced of $2500. In mid-1994 it was readily available for little more than $100, and cellular telephone companies frequently offered it free to mew subscribers, reflecting a shift value from physical products to services.The lesson is clear. In the emerging agile competitive environment, sustained success goes to companies that are capable of continually adding new value to existing products and services, as well as creating a steady stream of mew ones.(3)Companies are segmenting markets according to function, exploiting economies of scope made possible primarily by the generalizability of microelectronics technologies. In a sense, the extraordinary range of computer chip-based consumer, commercial, and industrial products is an expression of the packagability of this technology.Increasingly, workstations, desktop computers, portables, laptops, and notebook and subnotebook even “palm” computers utilize not only the same underlying technology but the very same processing chips, for example, the Intel 386, 486 and Pentium CPUs, and the power PC chips created yointly by IBM, Motorola, and Apple.Pagers and beepers have evolved into a broad range of lightweight, wireless personal communication devices with constantly expanding computing and information exchange and display capabilities, ranging from sending and receiving faxes to uploading and downloading data remotely to and from on-line data services that literally span the globe.2. Production to Order in Arbitrary Lot SizesIt is already possible for each of the many products made on a high-volume production line to be made differently from each of the others with little or no increase in production costs. This capability, which resulted from the collapse of traditional information costs, has revolutionary marketing consequences. Individualized production increases competition in existing markets, opens new markets and creates competitive as close to mass-production prices as a company chooses to price them. In addition, more and more companies are discovering that they can produce customer-configured products to order instead of to forecast. Doing so generates benefits far beyond savings from the elimination of inventories. The knowledge, as every product is made, that it has already been sole to ,and thus is being made for, a particular customer can have a dramatic impact on company operations. It certainly transforms the nature of sales, from pushing inventory to pulling production.Finally, production equipment innovations continue to provide greater and greater functionality at smaller scales and at significantly lower costs. For large and medium-size businesses, this development makes it easier and more cost-effective to target niche markets, producing goods and services efficiently for smaller clusters of customers. At the same time, it is also causing a “democratization” of production opportunities by making entry into niche markets for low-volume, individualized products accessible to businesses of all sizes. Just a few illustrations of this democratization are desktop publishing hardware and software; digital video, audio, and audio-video studio-quality production; equipment; print copying, graphics, and digital image reproduction and manipulation services, information searching and packaging services, electronic music playing and recording with increasingly sophisticated synthesizer, ovens that make minibakery and minirestaurant operations practical as both stand-alone businesses and within larger enterprise, for example, department stores and supermarkets.Traditionally, economic order quantity (EOQ) calculations determined the smallest lot size that could be profitably produced. These calculations involve a mix of technology-dependent variables and accounting and financial metrics in which assignment of labor, materials, and setup costs plays a major role. In a competitive environment characterized by pricing based on customer enrichment, and driven by a demand for customizable products that increasing numbers of companies are already capable of satisfying, the concept of EOQ needs to be reexamined. With the spread of individualizable production equipment, the EOQ should be whatever the customer wants the important figure becomes the ratio of production lead time to customer tolerance time. If the ratio is less than 1, a company can produce to order; if it is greater than 1, a company can only build to forecast while reducing its production lead time to below its customers tolerance time if it wants to keep its customers!The ability to produce to order in arbitrary lot sizes may or may not be a function of the use of advanced technologies. At its St. Louis aircraft manufacturing facility, McDonnell-Douglas reduced its EOQ by linking its 100 individual computer numerical control (CNC) machine tool cells to a single productionscheduling computer in order to activate direct numerical control (DNC) of machining operations.Motorolas Boynton Beach, Florida, plant serves as an evolving test-bed (recently converted to a second generation of production technologies) for manufacturing customer-configured products to order. Cellular pagers are assembled, tested, packaged, and shipped, all by computer-controlled machinery, within hours of remotely entered orders. At its newly constructed Kyushu assembly plant, Nissan has invested in very flexible, high-technology production equipment in its pursuit of the corporate goal of manufacturing any model of any of its automobiles, in any configuration, in any sequence, on any of its (new) production lines. The objective is very rapid assembly to customer order; Profitability is achieve at 10,000 units of any given model. Similarly, Matsushitas Shah Alam, Malaysia, TV plant has been designed so that any of 60 different color television models can be assembled simultaneously.Universal Instruments of Binghamton, New York, a manufacturer of capital goods for the electronics industry, discovered that building to order rather than to forecast was for it more a matter of mind-set than of technology. Setting aside the ole practices and analyzing its operations without tradition-bound prejudices, it discovered that its production lead times and costs would be very nearly the same if it built to order and that inventory costs and customer lead time would go down. Once the transition to this new system was made, the company discovered that product development tine become much shorter as a result of the active customer involvement that building to order encouraged. Interacting mort intensively with customers, in turn, revealed new, cost-free ways of adding value for the customer. For example, installation and changeover tine for new equipment was significantly was significantly reduced through an improved understanding by both parties of the requirements for installation upon delivery.What is most impressive about Deeres transformation in 1993 of an older plant, is that it involved almost no new technology at allno robot assembly machines, no next century computer network, no artificially intelligent process controllers. Plant management rethought the production process controllers. Plant management rethought the production process, the flow of work, and the utilization of the worker force, giving operational production goals. These changes have eliminate inventory and improved product quality.3. Information Capacity to Treat Masses of Customers as IndividualsAgile competition goes beyond the Japanese marketing strategies known as lean manufacturing by permitting the customer, jointly with the vendor or provider, to determine what the product will be. The Japanese utilized the efficiency and flexibility created by their product process innovations to expand model variety. The proliferation of types of motorcycles, cameras, audio equipment, watches, color TVs, and VCRs (Video Cassette Recorder) reached avalanche proportions. Initially, this astonishing variety attracted many new customers, created new markets and won major shares in existing markets. Eventually, however, as the variety and options increased, a burden was placed on customers, who typically lack the expertise, the time, or the motivation to study the cascading numbers of choices suddenly made available to them.Previously, the problem lay in choice being driven by producers. With agility however, choice is driven by consumers. Choice moves from being the producers responsibility to being the customers responsibility. The producer initiates the interactive relationship through which the product to be produced is jointly defined. Of course, there are constraints, but the center of gravity of the transaction process shifts. It becomes the producers job go help customers express their needs and their requirements. This includes “growing” customersknowing enough abort what customers do, what they want to do, and what they should want to do, being able to show them how they can benefit from a product customized to their needs.Focusing on the individual customer has evolved from the unilateral producer-centered customer-responsive companies inspired by the lean manufacturing refinement of agile competition.4. Shrinking Product LifetimesThe decreasing lifetimes of products, increasing proliferation of models, and accelerating pace of the introduction of new or improved models are among the most brutal facts of contemporary competition. Sonys Walkman line seems to change models daily. On a recent visit to one store in Tokyos Akihabara electronics district, more than 400 Walkman-size products, offering some combination of AM, FM, cassette tape playback and /or recording capabilities, were on display/Today, Panasonics consumer electronics product cycle tine is three months. That is, the lifetime of any given model of CD player, TV, VCR, cassette deck, or stereo receiver is just 90 days. During that time, its successor is being designed, tested, and put into production. The design, development, production, distribution, and marketing processes are continuous and overlapping.Intel works on three generations of chips at a time; one in volume production and facing declining unit profits, one in beta testing being readied for limited production, and one being designed. Since the autumn of 19814, when the IBM PC was introduced, Intel has moved from the 8086 to the 8088 to the mostly ignored 80186 to the 80286(which launched the IBM AT class of PCs), the 80386, the current desktop standard 80486, and the state-of-the-Intel-art Pentium/80586, with the next generation 80686(Pentium-) being hurried into pre-production testing. Perhaps even more astonishing, the lifetime of mainframe computers has recently been halved, with significantly higher-performance models being introduced every two years rather than every four. In 1994 the rapidity of mainframe innovation and IBMs technology advantage led Hitachi, a major mainframe competitor, to sign an agreement under which it would cease competing and buy its mainframe technology from IBM, including whole systems that it would resell with the Hitachi logo.Automobile model changes used to take place every five or six years, with only styling changes and subsystem improvements occurring in between. Today, the leading Japanese manufacturers can introduce a mew model in three years, and Toyota, at least, aims to be able to do this in under 30montys by 1995. Chryslers award-winning new large sedans(the Concorde, Vision, Intrepid line) and Neon subcompact were each developed in approximately 40 months, and Fords redesign of the Mustang (not a completely mew vehicle but much more than a styling change) was accomplished in three years, whereas four years had been the norm for such projects at Ford.By integrating business functions, creating interactive relationships with customers and suppliers, and rethinking company operations and processes, companies can often reduce their product cycle time dramatically. The barriers to shortening the concept-to-cash time are, in the main, structural, a reflection of the mind-set of mass-production competition. With a change of mind-set, what had never been attempted before suddenly becomes very doable and, indeed, a necessity for being competitive.5. Convergence of Physical Products and ServicesThe traditional distinction between goods and servicesreflected, for example, in the different rates at which the revenues generated by their creation and consumption are taxedand between the kinds of companies and personnel that produce them is vanishing. This distinction is being replaced by markets for “fusion products”physical products, the value of which lies overwhelmingly, if not exclusively, in the information and/or services to which the physical product provides access. A direct result of this convergence is that hardware companies are acquiring the capability to create both information and services or they are working increasingly closely with information and service companies in order to create fusion products.Sega and Nintendo game machines, for example, are sold at costat best. The machines are merely platforms for selling games, which have generated all the profits these companies have earned. The machines are therefore developed in collaboration with game developers and the technologies driven by the requirements of games that will excite buyers. Sega management has chosen to rely primarily on external developers, from whom it may buy games or to whom it may pay royalties. Nintendo attempts to collect a large portion of software profits by employing its own programmers and developing new games in house.Similarly, however high their technology, CD and CD ROM players, cameras, and personal computers, like so many other modern consumer products, become low-margin commodities soon after they redefine the state of the art. (See the earlier discussion of the paradox of sneakerization.) The real value of these items lies in the sales of CDs, film developing and printing services, and software, respectively. CDs, software, and so forth typically have retail prices that are one to two orders of magnitude greater than their physical production costs, whereas the CD players and computers generate smaller and smaller unit profits.There are three important consequences of this convergence of physical products, information, and services:(1) The dynamics of competition shifts from advantages deriving from manufacturing techniques, technologies, and processes to advantages deriving from peoplefrom their knowledge, initiative, and creativity. During the mass-production era, the knowledge it took to create and produce products was invisible. It was buried in management, marketing ,and production processes, and there was no sign of it in the product.In the era of agile competition, the fulcrum of value-adding commercial activity shifts from manufacturing to innovative, knowledge-based information and service applications of manufactured products. The success of more and more products is a direct function of the customer-perceived value of the knowledge, information (including entertainment), and services this is just as true for commercial products as it is for consumer products, entertainment aside.Manufacturing companies must therefore take the initiative in making their contributions to the total end user product as valuable as possible. The unique value added to CD players and VCRs by the manufacturers of the tapes, motors, switches, laser devices, and playback/recording heads is invisible to the customer. The rewards for these manufactures are determined by the extent to which they (the manufacturers) maximize the value of their contributions to those who will benefit the most from the performance of the end product.Today, manufacturing excellence is taken for granted, a situation created by modern production technologies that are so capable and so robust that very sophisticated physical products, such as magnetic recording tape, videocassettes and audiocassettes, compact discs, lasers, hard discs and CPUs, can be manufactured in high volume at low cost almost anywhere in the world.At the same time, this shift in the dynamics of competition threatens the foundation of the Japanese postwar economic “miracle.” The Japanese have prospered primarily as a result of the excellence of their manufacturing operations. Over and over again during the past 15 years we have been told of the Japanese skill in taking foreign innovations and commercializing them, of the superior yield of Japanese semiconductor manufacturing, of the superior efficiency of their automotive assembly operations. We have been told the stories of their automotive assembly operations. We have been told the stories of the origin of the portable transistor radio, the consumer VCR, and the Sony Walkman. But as the dominant value added to the highest-profit products shifts from manufacturing to information and services, the Japanese find themselves in a very unfamiliar competitive position, one requiring techniques very different from lean manufacturing.(2) Instead of a discrete sale at a single point in time, the asle of knowledge based products holds the potential for a continuing relationship over time between producers and consumers. What the customer is really buying is information and services. If producers enhance these commodities over time in step with changing customer interests or requirements, customers will continue to be customers, buying new information and service products. They will also buy hardware enhancements that provide different, of more convenient, access to information and services.Agile-ear products are thus open-ended. If designed appropriately, they can evolve indefinitely. Consider the families of releases of computer programs such as word processors or spreadsheets, together with coordinated utility programs, or computer hardware that is user-upgradable and reconfigurable. Indeed, a symbiotic relationship has existed for more than a decade between computer hardware and software at all levels, from PCs to mainframes.(3) Information has emerged as a product in its own right. With such vast quantities of data being collected and stored, companies are being guilt on a foundation of managing other companies information products created by packaging data. Sometimes the data are freely available in the public domain, collected for some other purpose, or the data may have been specifically collected to be repackaged in a particular way.Under CEO James Unruh, Unisys is shifting the foundation of its business from selling computer hardware to selling computer-based information, information management, and information services. Hewlett-Packard and IBM management are being reorganized to exploit the same market. IBM has abandoned its geography-based organization in favor of one based on the industry being served, the better to provide comprehensive information-based solutions to customer problems instead of the hardware and software elements of such solutions. As even the most sophisticated hardware becomes a commodity through price pressure from imitators, the opportunities to add value for customers increasingly lie in the application of hardware to solving customer problems.The astonishing rate of growth of data accessible via the Internet has resulted in the development of several generations of increasingly sophisticated programs for automation data-search and data-collection operations: Gopher, Archie, WAIS, World Wide Web, Mosaic. These will become the prototypes for commercial data-packaging programs that will be the tools for “mining” data in much the same way that mineral ores are mined.1 、市场分化（ 1 ）所有的市场的分散在加快。杂志，啤酒，软饮料，小吃;电台和有线电视频道;音频和视频设备;相机，传真机和复印机，打印机和扫描仪;电器，服装，金融，购物，及商用服务业等所有都很起伏。理智的银行，信贷和投资服务的价格可能会有所不同，表现于年龄，信贷，历史，帐户的数量平衡活动，或大小的平衡。 （ 2 ） “ sneakerizing ” 是他们公司的产品，他们从相对低价商品转化为相对高价位的专业项目。运动鞋使用便是低廉的大众市场的商品。但运动鞋是在一个利基市场作为价格较高的，怀旧的产品！正如他们所说，历史是候选人复活的原因。运动鞋，已改为“运动鞋”特殊用途，昂贵，占领利基市场，生产量很大。 支持侵略和博乐广告呼吁的情绪，一些一直廉价，实用，低利润的商品已转化为众多的利基市场相关的“形象”和生产的大容量特色产品，售价确定也在某种程度上丰富了个别客户销售。 因为制造业和信息技术尽可能使多样化的产品和服务在小的额外成本超过大规模生产，也使有盈利能力的客户的定价策略增高了一段时间。不过，在同一时间内，出于同样的原因，仿制的非常成功的产品和服务是不可避免的，因为技术设计，生产，并提供商品和服务几乎普遍可用，并模仿下调压力价格和利润。正是因为广泛的差距，生产成本和销售价格。在1989年当摩托罗拉的移动电话microtac被介绍了，它进行的零售价格为2500 。 1994年年中，它是价格略多于100元，和蜂窝电话公司经常提供它的免费用户，以水电部，反映了从有形的产品服务转移的价值。 教训是显而易见的。在新兴的激烈的竞争的环境下，持续的成功，使公司有能力不断加入新的价值，以现有的产品和服务，以及创造一个稳定的水电部。 （ 3 ）公司根据职能利用经济的范围分割市场，可能主要是概微电子技术。在某种意义上，一系列特殊的计算机芯片为基础的消费者，商业和工业产品，表达了packagability这种技术。工作站，台式电脑，笔记本电脑，笔记型电脑及笔记型电脑和subnotebook ，甚至“手掌”电脑利用，都拥有相同的技术，相同的处理芯片，例如英特尔的386 ， 486和Pentium处理器，以及Power PC芯片由IBM制造yointly ，摩托罗拉和苹果。 传呼机和beepers已演变为一个广泛的重量轻，无线个人通信装置，不断扩大的计算和信息交流和显示功能，范围从发送和接收传真上载和下载数据，远程和从上线的数据服务，达到了从字面上跨度全球的效果。 2 、生产秩序很多，任意大小这是已经为每个可能的产品上取得一高容量的生产线，从每个其他与很少或没有增加的生产成本作出不同点。这种能力，而导致从传统的信息成本崩溃的，到具有革命的营销后果。在现有市场中个性化生产的增加，竞争，开辟新市场和创造竞争力，作为一家公司全适的选择了他们的价格。 此外，越来越多的公司发现，它们能生产客户配置的产品，而不是为了预测。这样做产生的好处远远超出了消除库存的储蓄。作为每一个产品的技术，它是唯一的，因此才能为公司的运作产生一个巨大的影响。当然，变换的性质，销售，从推动库存拉动生产开始。最后，生产设备在较小的规模和降低成本中创新，继续为市民提供越大来大的功能。大型和中型的企业更容易及更合乎成本效益的目标在为规模较小的集群的客户于生产商品和服务的效率。在同一时间内，这也是造成了“民主化”的生产机会，使小批量，个性化的产品的企业进入利基市场获得各种规模。短短几年的插图，这是普通的桌面出版系统的硬件和软件;数字视频，音频和音像工作室质量的生产设备;打印复制，图形和数字图像再生产和操纵服务，信息检索和包装服务，电子音乐演奏和录制与日益复杂的合成器，烤炉，使minibakery和minirestaurant的实际行动，作为独立的企业和大型企业双方的立场，就比如说，百货公司与超市。 传统上，经济秩序的数量（EOQ ）计算，很多可以确定大小中的最小的可带来利润。这些计算涉及依赖变量的混合技术、会计和财务指标，其中转让的劳动力，材料和安装成本起着重要的作用。在环境竞争特点下定价的基础上，越来越多的公司已经能够满足客户丰富的需求， EOQ这个概念的需要加以重新审视。与蔓延individualizable的生产设备的EOQ反应，尽管是重要顾客希望的，已成为生产的周期，也就是客户等侍的时间。如果该比率小于1 ，一家公司可以正常的生产;如果是大于1 ，一家公司只能建立计划的同时，减少其生产的时间，以低于其客户的等耐时间如果它想保持其客户！很多在生产能力命令任意大小可能会或不会是一个功能使用的先进技术。在其圣路易飞机制造设施厂，麦克唐奈-道格拉斯减少的EOQ挂钩，其中100个数控机床细胞，从事一个单一的生产调度计算机，以便启动的直接数值控制（ DNC系统）加工行动。 摩托罗拉的博因顿海滩，佛罗里达，植物作为一个不断演变的试验台（最近改建为第二代的生产技术）为制造业客户配置的产品订单。手机，传呼机使组装，测试，包装，发运，所有由电脑控制的机械，数小时内进入远程命令。在其新建成的九州装配厂，为追求企业的目标日产已投资在非常灵活、高科技的生产设备上，制造任何模型任何汽车，在任何配置、在任何序列上、它的任何（新）生产线。目的是非常迅速的与盈利达到1.0万个单位在任何特定的模式的大客户订单。同样，松下的Shah Alam ，马来西亚，电视机厂在设计上已使任何60个不同的彩色电视模型可同时组装。普遍的文书宾厄姆顿，纽约，制造商，资本货品为电子业，发现建设秩序，而不是为了预测，它更是一个问题的心态。预留的OLE的做法和其业务的分析，没有传统的约束、偏见，发现其生产成本和交货时间将非常接近，同时，如果建立秩序和库存成本与客户的等侍时间会下降。一旦过渡到这个新系统发了言，该公司发现，产品开发时间变得短得多，由于客户积极参与建设，以便鼓励。互动Mort还加紧与客户，反过来又透露新的、低成本的免费方式，为客户提高销费。举例来说，安装和更换tine新装备显着明显降低，通过更好地了解双方当事人的要求，安装后交付。什么是印象最深刻的关于迪尔的转型，在1993年的旧厂，是因为它涉及的几乎没有新技术，没有机器人装配机器，没有下一世纪的计算机网络，没有人为的智能过程控制器。工厂管理的再思考生产过程控制器。植物管理的生产过程，流通工作，并利用工人的力量，确定业务的生产目标。这些变化，消除库存并提高了产品质量。 3 、信息处理能力激烈竞争超越了日本的营销策略被称为精益生产允许的客户，联同供应商或供应商，用来确定哪些产品。日本的利用效率和灵活性，在于在创造他们的产品创新过程中扩大示范品种。增加类型的摩托车，照相机，音响设备，手表，彩电，和VCR （录像机）成很大的比例增长。最初，这个惊人的品种，吸引了不少新客户，创造新的市场和韩元的主要股票在现有的市场。最终，由于品种及期权增加，负担放在了那些通常缺乏专业知识，时间，或动机研究的级联数目的选择的客户身上。此前，问题在于在选择催促生产者。与敏捷性相比，选择是吸引消费者。选择从作为生产者的责任，作为客户的责任。生产者发起的互动关系，通过这些产品产生的庆到共同的界定。当然，有限制，在于中心的严重性、交易过程的变化。成为生产者的责任去帮助客户表达他们的需要和他们的要求。这包括“成长”的顾客，他们想做的事，和他们应想做的事，能够向他们展示他们如何能够受益于产品定制，以便他们的需要。着眼于个别客户已演变从单方面的生产者为本，客户反应公司的灵感，由精益生产的细化激烈竞争。 4 、产品寿命萎缩 产品的寿命降低，越来越多的扩散模式，随着步伐的加快，引入新的或改进的模式是当代竞争最残酷的事实。索尼的随身听线，似乎每天都在变化模型。关于最近访问一个存储在东京的秋叶原电子区， 400多个随身听大小的产品，提供一些组合时，调频，盒式磁带播放和/或录制功能，就显示/今天，松下的消费电子产品生产周期， tine是三个月。那就是一生中任何特定模式的CD播放机，电视机，录像机，录音机甲板上，或立体声接收器，只是在90天内。在这段时间，其继任者正在设计，测试，并投入生产。设计，开发，生产，分配，营销
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