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Law Enforcement RobotsLaw enforcement and the legal apprehension of offenders is an inherently dangerous activity. This also makes it a good opportunity for robots. It is, however, a highly-unstructured activity which makes it very difficult for robots. Robots have found some application in training, surveillance and bomb disposal; but the days of an actual RoboCop are a long ways off.The United Service Associates makes the robot at the left. They call it the Mad Robot and it does look mad. I would be mad too if I had this robots job. It is essentially a mannequin target on remote controlled wheels. By utilizing this robot to make sudden and unpredictable movements in training scenarios, the trainers attempt to teach the officers to replace their startle reaction with a timely and appropriate response.Of course the appropriate response is often to blast the robot. Thats probably why it is so mad. Not to worry, after it gets blasted enough they can replace the mannequin. They come in foam, vinyl and plastic.Talk about dangerous, bomb disposal has got to be one of the most dangerous activities for a law enforcement officer there is. That alone makes it a good opportunity for a robot, but coupled with the simplicity of the task, it makes a great opportunity for a robot. The robot at left is called a Mini Andros and is made by the Remotec corporation. This robot has all the features required of a good bomb disposal robot. It has a camera coupled with a strong light. The knobby tires and the tracks should provide very good stability and rough terrain capability. Finally, there is a sturdy manipulator on the front. The robot uses this manipulator to pick up the bomb and then uses the mobility platform to move the bomb to a remote location where it can be safely destroyed by secondary explosives. All of these activities are telecontrolled by a remote operator.The robot at left is clearly outfitted for surveillance. It is small and has a video camera and a light. The tracks should provide excellent maneuverability on all types of terrain. A robot like this would be a good choice for looking for suspects hiding in vents or drainage pipes. It could also be sent into difficult situations with barricaded suspects. As with the bomb disposal robot, this surveillance robot is telecontrolled by a remote operator.Robots In SpaceApplications outside the Earths atmosphere are clearly a good fit for robots. It is dangerous for humans to get to space, to be in space and to return from space. Keeping robots operating reliably in space presents some unique challenges for engineers. The ultra-high vacuum in space prevents the use of most types of lubricants. The temperatures can swing wildly depending on whether the robot is in the sun light or shade. And, or course, there is almost no gravity. This is actually more of an opportunity than a challenge and leads to the possibility of some unique designs. The conceptual robot at left has 21 independent joints. On earth it would be impossible for this robot to support its own weight, but in space, the design presents some unique capabilities. The robot can reach around obstacles and through port holes. The robot also possesses a huge degree of fault tolerance. It can continue to operate with excellent dexterity even after severaljoints fail.The robot at left is called Robonaut. It is a humanoid robot designed by the Robot Systems Technology Branch at NASAs JSC in a collaborative effort with DARPA. Robonauts creators designed it to have dexterity, range of motion and task capabilities roughly equivalent to that of an astronaut in a space suit. Space flight hardware has been designed for servicing by astronauts for the last fifty years. It makes sense that robots would gradually pick up these tasks over time rather than suddenly replacing astronauts. The set of tools used by astronauts during space walks was the initial design consideration for the system. This drove the development of Robonauts dexterous five-fingered hand and human-scale arm. The robots mix of sensors includes thermal, position, tactile, force and torque , with over 150 sensors per arm. The control system for Robonaut includes an onboard CPU with miniature data acquisition and power management in an environmentally hardened body. Hes also got a nifty thermal suit to protect him from the wild temperature swings in space.At left we see the Canadarm robot arm, a version of which has flown on every Space Shuttle flight for the last twenty years. The arm has a shoulder with 2 DOF, an elbow with 1 DOF and a 3 DOF wrist. The arm is routinely used as a mobile work platform for the astronauts, for tossing satellites into space and for retrieving faulty ones. Non-routine uses have included: knocking a block of ice from a clogged waste-water vent, pushing a faulty antenna into place, and activating a satellite that failed to go into proper orbit. Several of these arms have been in service for twenty years. A true robot success.At right we see a press photograph of the Sojourner mobile robot that ultimately explored the surface of Mars. This is more of an R/C car than a robot as it was completely remote controlled from Earth, but NASA calls it a robot so I will too. In any case, the pictures it provided from the Martian surface were breath taking. Sometimes I think that really cool pictures may be NASAs greatest contributions. The deep field images produced by the Hubble telescope are in my opinion some of the greatest wonders of mankind.The Sojourner is a 6-wheeled vehicle of a rocker bogie design which allows the traverse of obstacles a wheel diameter (13cm) in size. Each wheel is independently actuated and geared (2000:1). The front and rear wheels are independently steerable, providing the capability for the vehicle to turn in place. The vehicle has a top speed of 0.4m/min. It is powered by a 0.22sqm solar panel comprised of 13 strings of 18, 5.5mil GaAs cells each. The normal driving power requirement for the microrover is 10W.NASA decided to develop a $288-million Flight Telerobotics Servicer (FTS) in 1987 to help astronauts assemble the Space Station, which was growing bigger and more complex with each redesign. Shown here is the winning robot design by Martin Marietta, who received a $297-million contract in May 1989 to develop a vehicle by 1993. About the best thing that can be said for the FTS project was that it generated a lot of lessons learned. The robot never flew and never will fly because it was never completed. This project demonstrated that fault-tolerance gone wild will doom a robot. The robot had so many redundant systems that there was just too much to go wrong.TeleroboticsThis is a 1960s era manual controller developed for controlling robots operating in radioactive environments. This controller is roughly the size of a human arm. At the back of the controller you can see a number of black disks. These are electric motors. These electric motors provide the energy to feed forces back to the operator. These forces are proportional to the current in the robots motors which in turn are proportional to the forces being experienced by the robot. The placement of the motors at the back of the controller provides perfect counter balancing. The motors drive the robot joints with almost no friction via metal tape. Developed 40 years ago and without any computer control, I believe this controller works as well or better than any human-arm scale controller available today.This is an example of full immersion telecontrol. This guy has an exoskeleton around his arm, hand, fingers and head. He is controlling a force-reflecting 9-degree-of-freedom (DOF) hand coupled to a force-reflecting 7-DOF arm. The hand/arm combination is mounted on a 3-DOF torso that extends the work volume of the manipulator system. A 3-DOF head that holds a stereoscopic pair of TV viewing cameras is also mounted on the torso. The helmet holds a 3D display and motions of the operators head control the robots head. Im not too sure what to say about this one as Ive never tried a system like this. I will say that it is definitely not for the claustrophobic operator! The overall system was developed and integrated by SSC San Diego. The manipulator (hand/arm/torso/head) was developed in conjunction with Sarcos Research and the Center for Engineering Design at the University of Utah. The vision system uses technologies developed by Wright-Patterson Air Force Base and Technology Innovation Group.The picture at left shows the commercial version (called Phantom) of a manual controller developed by MIT. This is my favorite scale of manual controller. I believe that humans can achieve their best precision with just small movements of the wrist and hand. Because the controller weighs very little, it can feed back forces with a very high bandwidth - even to the point where the operator can actually feel textures. By stressing design principals of low mass, low friction, low backlash, high stiffness and good back-drivability, this system is capable of presenting sensations of contact, constrained motion, surface compliance and surface friction.The device at left is called a SpaceBall. It has three independent force sensors and three independent torque sensors to provide the requisite six degrees of freedom for arbitrarily positioning a solid body in space. This controller was developed primarily to give 3D designers the ability to pan, spin, zoom, rotate and analyze their designs on the computer. It also makes a quick, easy, intuitive and inexpensive manual controller for robots. Just push or twist on the ball and the robots hand moves in a corresponding fashion.Robots in Radioactive EnvironmentsThe folks working on the first atomic bombs pretty much defined telerobotics in this country. They had no other way of working with the radioactive materials. They used pure mechanical coupling for their telerobotics. The operator would stand on one side of a thick, leaded glass window while the robot manipulated the material on the other side. Cables, bands and tubes provided the coupling. Before long, these systems were carefully engineered with counter balancing and very low friction surfaces. The mechanical coupling provided natural force feedback. I had the opportunity to use one of these systems at Oak Ridge National Lab and it was far superior to any modern, motorized, electronic telerobotic system I have tried (and I have tried very many of them). I would recommend the use of these manual systems in any telerobotic application where it is not necessary to project the control beyond the next room.The robot at left was developed for the decontamination and dismantlement of nuclear weapons facilities. It has two six-degree of freedom Schilling arms mounted on a five-degree of freedom base. As the facilities used to develop our countrys nuclear weapons enter their 50th year and beyond, we now have to dismantle them and safely store the waste. The radioactive fields makes this activity too hazardous for human workers so the use of robotics makes sense. The idea for this robot is that it can hold a part in one hand and use a cutting tool with the other; basically stripping apart the reactor layer by layer (something like peeling an onion). As the robot works it too will become contaminated and radioactive and ultimately need to be stored as radioactive waste.The graphic at left is a conceptual depiction of a robot arm mounted on a mobile base checking drums filled with radioactive waste for leaks. The question of what to do with our radioactive waste is a hotly debated topic. The idea of storing it in warehouses and monitoring it with robots for the next 100,000 years (if necessary) makes sense to me. We might as well admit we have it, monitor it logically and hope that future generations will figure out something to do with it; perhaps re-reacting it into a less dangerous state. Another proposed alternative is to bury it; which to me seems insane. Over the course of centuries it is bound to leak from its containers and ultimately into the ground water. Because it would be buried and almost impossible to monitor, we would not know about the contamination until the damage was huge, and then it would be extremely difficult to get at because it was buried. Another proposal is to use space craft and launch the material into the Sun. Who thinks of these things? Please dont mess with the Sun！Airborne RobotsThe little device at the left is a mock-up of an ambitious project at UC Berkeley to develop an artificial fly. If you ask me, they dont have a chance of succeeding. The challenges are just too great. They need to get the tiny wings flapping at 150 times per second, there needs to be some means of keeping the system stable in the air and somehow it has to navigate. And all this on something the size of a dime. They have gotten one wing to flap fast enough that, if they mount it on a little wire boom, it will generate some thrust. In other words they are nowhere close after years of work. This may be the type of system that can only be developed via evolution.At left we see a little robot blimp made with a polymer balloon. These blimps are available as R/C controlled toys. They can be modified to add sensors and computational hardware which can transform them into robots. I think they are a great way to experiment with obstacle avoidance and machine-based decision making. You can go straight to the machine intelligence and skip the engineering of a mobility platform. Well, unless you think engineering the mobility platform is the fun part.I love this little robot plane developed by the Navy. They call it the Silver Fox and it really does use an engine from the world of R/C planes. This is no R/C plane though. It is capable of fully autonomous flight and is designed for reconnaissance, intelligence, surveillance and target acquisition by small military units. The current model carries commercially available sensors. The goal is to give the Silver Fox, which is also known as the Smart War fighter Array of Reconfigurable Modules (SWARM), 24-hour endurance a 1,500-mile range and a maximum altitude of 10,000-feet. The idea of 100 of these things filled with explosives flying 1000 miles and then closing on an enemy target like a swarm of mad bees is truly terrifying.Industrial robotAn industrial robot is officially defined by ISO as an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose manipulator programmable in three or more axes. The field of industrial robotics may be more practically defined as the study, design and use of robot systems for manufacturing (a top-level definition relying on the prior definition of robot).Typical applications of industrial robots include welding, painting, ironing, assembly, pick and place, palletizing, product inspection, and testing, all accomplished with high endurance, speed, and precision.Industrial robot types, featuresThe most commonly used robot configurations for industrial automation, include articulated robots (The first and most common) SCARA robots and gantry robots (aka Cartesian Coordinate robots, or x-y-z robots). In the context of general robotics, most types of industrial robots would fall into the category of robot arms (inherent in the use of the word manipulator in the above-mentioned ISO standard).Industrial robot