语言学 Chapter4 课后练习答案

Chapter 4 Revision Exercises1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule. The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP(Det) N (PP) . VP(Qual) V (NP) . AP(Deg) A (PP) . PP(Deg) P (NP) . We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P. The XP rule: XP(specifier) X (complement) 3. What is category? How to determine a words category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. To determine a words category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. The most reliable of determining a words category is its distribution.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structure.It has four important properties:1) there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) a category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier. The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed. Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary. Complement: Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. Modifier: Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads. 6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure? There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the heads subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure). 7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully. Det A N V P Det N Adv b) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det N c) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools. Det A N Aux V Det N P Det N d) This cloth feels quite soft. Det N V Deg A 8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each phrase.a) rich in minerals AP A PP rich in mineralsb) often read detective stories VP Qual V NP often read detective storiesc) the argument against the proposals NP Det N PP the argument against the proposalsd) already above the window PP Deg P NP already above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentences, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree sentences.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.Modifiers: crippled(AdjP), with extreme caution(PP) S NP Infl VP APDet A N Pst V NP Det N PP P NP AP N AA crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme cautionb) A huge moon hung in the black sky.Modifiers: huge(AdjP), in the black sky(PP) S NP Infl VP Det AP N Pst V PP A P NP Det AP NA huge moon hung in the black skyc) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.Modifiers: carefully(AdvP), yesterday(AdvP) S NP Infl VP Det N Pst V NP AdvP Det N AdvP Adv AdvThe man examined his car carefully yesterdayd) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Modifiers: wooden(AdjP), in the storm(PP) S NP Infl VPDet AP N PP Pst V PP A P NP P NPDet N Det NA wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants. S NP Infl VP N V NP Det AP N Con N A Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out. S NP Infl VP N Pst V PP Con V PP P NP P Det N Helen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics. S NP Infl VP N Pre V AP Con AP A PP A PP P NP P NP N N Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war. SNP Infl VPN Pre V NP CP C S NP Infl VP NP N Pre V NP NYou know that I hate warb) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam. SNP Infl VPN Pre V NP Det N CP- C S NP Infl VP NP N Pst V NP Det AP N AGerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English examc) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce. SNP Infl VP N Pst V AP A CP C S NP NP Infl VP Det N Pst V NP N Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Roll-Royced) The children argued over whether bats had wings. SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V PP P CP C S NP Infl VP N Plu V NP NThe children argued over whether bats had wings12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent. Deep Structure: CP C S NP Infl VP Det N CP Pst V AP C S Aux A NP Infl VP N Pst V NP N The essay he wrote that was excellentSurface Structure: CP C S NP Infl VP Det N CP Pst V AP C S Aux A NP NP Infl VP N N Pst V NP NThe essay that he wrote e was excellentb) Herbert bought a house that she loved.Deep Structure: CP C S NP Infl VP N Pst V NP Det N CP C S NP Infl VP N Pst V NP N Herbert bought a house she loved thatSurface Structure: CP C S NP Infl VP N Pst V NP Det N CP C S NP NP Infl VP N N Pst V NP N Herbert bought a house that she loved ec) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.Deep Structure: CP C S NP Infl VP Det N CP Pre V PP C S P NP NP Infl VP N N Pre V NP N The girl he adores whom majors in linguisticsSurface Structure: CP C S NP Infl VP Det N CP Pre V PP NP C S P NP NP Infl VP N N N Pre V NP N The girl whom he adores e majors in linguistics13. The deri