心理学专业英语基础.ppt

ENGLISHFORPSYCHOLOGY,主讲人：,CONTENTS,CHAPTERONEWHATISPSYCHOLOGYCHAPTERTWORESEARCHMETHODSCHAPTERTHREECONGNITIVEPSYCHOLOGYCHAPTERFOURDEVELOPMENTALPSYCHOLOGYCHAPTERFIVESOCIALPSYCHOLOGYCHAPTERSIXABNORMALPSYCHOLOGY(变态心理学）CHAPTERSEVENSKILLSOFREADINGCHAPTEREIGHTSKILLSOFWRITINGAbstractWritingWritinginSocialSciencesWritinginNaturalSciences,READINGS,心理学专业英语基础心理学教育学专业英语改变心理学的40项研究（中文版，英文版）,RESOURCES,英语字典（牛津，朗文）现代英汉-汉英心理学词汇,Chapter1,Whatispsychology?,Whatispsychology?,1.DEFINITIONS:,Theword“Psychology”isderivedfromtwoGreekroots:“Psyche（精神）”,meaning“mind”or“soul”and“Logos（理性）,meaningstudyof.Psychology,therefore,literallymeansstudyofthemind.However,amorerecentdefinitionbyAtkinsonetal(1991)suggeststhatpsychologyis:Thescientificstudyofbehaviourandmentalprocesses,Whatispsychology?,DEFINITIONSTHEHISTORYOFPSYCHOLOGYWHEREDIDPSYCHOLOGYCOMEFROMWHENDIDPSYCHOLOGYSTARTEDHOWDIDPSYCHOLOGYDEVELOP,Whatispsychology?,DEFINITIONS:,ThewordPsychologyisderivedfromtwoGreekroots:Psyche,meaningmindorsoulandLogos,meaningstudyof.,derive:派生,roots:词根,mind:心灵；精神,soul:灵魂；心灵；精神,心理学这个单词是由psyche和logos这两个希腊词派生出来的，psyche的意思是心灵或精神，logos的意思是对研究。,Psychology,therefore,literallymeansstudyofthemind.,therefore:因此,literally:根据字面意思,因此，从字面上来讲，心理的意思就是对于心灵(意识)的研究。,However,amorerecentdefinitionbyAtkinsonetal(1991)suggeststhatpsychologyis:Thescientificstudyofbehaviourandmentalprocesses,suggest:认为，建议，提议,然而，Atkinson（1991）等人提出了一个较新的定义，“心理学是对于行为与心理过程的科学研究”。心理学是研究行为和心理过程的科学。,Justgivingthissimpledefinition,however,isabitmisleading,sincepsychologistsnowandthroughout（自始至终）theirhistoryhavenotonlydisagreedaboutthedefinitionofpsychologybuthavealsostronglydisagreedaboutwhatshouldbestudiedinthesubject（主题）andhowitshouldbestudied.,subject:主题，科目,misleading:误导的，令人误解的，引入歧途,然而，仅仅给出这样一个简单的定义，会有一点误导，因为无论是在历史上还是现在，心理学家不仅对于心理学的定义没有达成一致，而且对于在这个学科中应该研究什么以及应该如何研究也存在巨大的分歧。,Whatispsychology？,2.THEHISTORYOFPSYCHOLOGY,标题内容,WHEREDIDPSYCHOLOGYCOMEFROM?Psychologydevelopedfromthreemainareasofstudy:,PHILOSOPHY,BIOLOGY,PHYSICS,Philosophy:哲学,Biology:生物学,Physics:物理学,心理学的来源？心理学是从三个主要的研究领域发展而来的：哲学、生物学、物理学。,Manyoftheproblemswhichpsychologyhasinvestigatedwerefirstmostclearlyoutlined（概述）byGreekphilosopherssuchasSocrates,Plato,andAristotleinthe5thcenturyBC.Twomorerencentphilosophicalinfluencesonthedevelopmentofpsychologyasasciencewere:1Empiricism（经验主义）-whicharguedthathumansshouldonlymeasuredatathatisobjectivelyobservable,suchasbehaviour.2Positivism（实证主义）-whicharguedthatthemethodsandprinciplesofscienceshouldbeappliedtohumanbehaviour.,PHILOSOPHY,PHILOSOPHY,ManyoftheproblemswhichpsychologyhasinvestigatedwerefirstmostclearlyoutlinedbyGreekphilosopherssuchasSocrates,Plato,andAristotleinthe5thcenturyBC.,investigate:调查，研究，探讨,outline:概述，提出的纲要,心理学研究的很多问题，是由希腊哲学家最先清晰提出（概要）的。比如说公元前5世纪的Socrates,Plato,andAristotle等。,suchas:像，诸如，例如用于举例,PHILOSOPHY,Twomorerecentphilosophicalinfluencesonthedevelopmentofpsychologyasasciencewere:1Empiricism-whicharguedthathumansshouldonlymeasuredatathatisobjectivelyobservable,suchasbehaviour.2Positivism-whicharguedthatthemethodsandprinciplesofscienceshouldbeappliedtohumanbehaviour.,当今对于心理学作为科学的发展，对于它的两个哲学性影响是：1经验主义认为人们只能去测量可以客观观测的数据，比如说行为。2实证主义认为科学的原理的方法应该被应用于人类行为的研究中。,argue:认为，提出观点，辩论,TIPS：,empiricism:thebeliefinbasingyourideasonpracticalexperience.positivism：akindofPHILOSOPHYthatisbasedonlyonrealfactswhichcanbescientificallyproved,ratherthanonideas.,Biology（生物学）hastwoimportantinfluences:1Evolution（进化论）-Darwinssuggestionthathumanshaveevolvedfrom（由进化）otheranimals.Thediscoveriesingeneticsthatfollowedfromhisevolutionarytheroyhavehadmanyimportantimplicationsforthestudyandunderstandingofbahaviour.2Physiology（生理学）-thediscoveries,mostlybythemedicalprofession,ofthestructureandfunctionofthebrain,nervous（神经）,andendocrinesystem（内分泌系统）havesignificantlycontributedtotheunderstandingofbehaviour.,BIOLOGY,1Evolution-Darwinssuggestionthathumanshaveevolvedfromotheranimals.Thediscoveriesingeneticsthatfollowedfromhisevolutionarytheroyhavehadmanyimportantimplicationsforthestudyandunderstandingofbahaviour.,suggestion:建议，意见，观点,进化论Darwin认为人类是从别的动物进化而来的。基因理论（遗传学）是由其理论发展而来的，在基因领域的发现，对于研究和理解行为有重大的影响。,implication:含义，影响，（可引申为意义）,Evolution:进化论,BIOLOGY,2Physiology-thediscoveries,mostlybythemedicalprofession,ofthestructureandfunctionofthebrain,nervous,andendocrinesystemhavesignificantlycontributedtotheunderstandingofbehaviour.,physiology:生理学,medicalprofession:医疗职业,生理学领域尤其是医疗行业，对脑，神经，内分泌系统的结构和功能的发现，对于理解行为有重大的贡献。,endocrinesystem:内分泌系统,significantly:重大地，客观地,BIOLOGY,Asubject（学科）thatbecauseofitsgreatsuccesshasbeenadoptedastheidealmodelbyscientistinpsychology,whohaveborroweditsscientificmethodsandprinciples.Physicist（物理学家）,suchasFechnerstartedapplyingtheirsubjecttohuamanbehaviourandexperience(psychophysics)inthenineteenthcentury,withsomesuccess.,PHYSICS,Asubjectthatbecauseofitsgreatsuccesshasbeenadoptedastheidealmodelbyscientistinpsychology,whohaveborroweditsscientificmethodsandprinciples.,由于这一学科的巨大成功，在心理学领域的许多科学家借鉴其科学方法和原则，将其作为理想模型。,PHYSICS,Physicist,suchasFechnerstartedapplyingtheirsubjecttohuamanbehaviourandexperience(psychophysics心理物理学)inthenineteenthcentury,withsomesuccess.,物理学家，比如说Fechner在19世纪开始将其研究领域开拓到人类行为与经验（领域），取得了一些成功。Fechner在19世纪开创了针对人类的行为与经验的学科心理物理学，并取得了一些成功。,psychophysics:心理物理学,PHYSICS,WHEREDIDPSYCHOLOGYCOMEFROM?Psychologydevelopedfromthreemainareasofstudy:,PHILOSOPHY,BIOLOGY,PHYSICS,WHENDIDPSYCHOLOGYSTARTED?,WHENDIDPSYCHOLOGYSTARTED？,Thedate1879isusuallysaidtobethestartofpsychologyasaseparatescientificdiscipline（科学学科）,sinceitwaswhenWilhelmWundtcreatedthefirstpsychologylaboratoryinLeipzig.,Wundtis,therefore,regardedasthe“foundingfather”ofpsychology,althoughAmericanstendtosuggestthatWilliamJamesshouldhavethishonorsincehis1890book(whichtook12yearstowrite)entitledPrinciple（原则）ofPsychologywasamajorlandmarkinpsychologysliterature（著作）andhebeganteachingacourseontherelationshipbetweenphysiology（生理学）andpsychologyatHarvardUniversityin1875.,WHENDIDPSYCHOLOGYSTARTED？,Thedate1879isusuallysaidtobethestartofpsychologyasaseparatescientificdiscipline,sinceitwaswhenWilhelmWundtcreatedthefirstpsychologylaboratoryinLeipzig.,discipline:学科,Leipzig:莱比锡,1879年通常被认为是心理学作为一个独立的科学学科的开始时间，因为这时Wundt在Leipzig创建了第一个心理学实验室。,WHENDIDPSYCHOLOGYSTARTED？,Wundtis,therefore,regardedasthe“foundingfather”ofpsychology,althoughAmericanstendtosuggestthatWilliamJamesshouldhavethishonorsincehis1890book(whichtook12yearstowrite)entitledPrincipleofPsychologywasamajorlandmarkinpsychologysliteratureandhebeganteachingacourseontherelationshipbetweenphysiologyandpsychologyatHarvardUniversityin1875.,因此，Wundt被认为是心理学之父，但美国人倾向于认为应该是WilliamJames拥有这个荣誉。因为他在1890年出版了，用12年写成的心理学原理，这本书在心理学著作史上是一个重大的标志性事件。此外，James在1875年就开始在HarvardUniversity教授一门关于生理学与心理学的关系的课程。,WHENDIDPSYCHOLOGYSTARTED？,StructuralismFunctionalismPsychoanalysisBehaviorismCognitivepsychologyHumanisticapproach（方法）Biologicalapproach,心理学是如何发展的？结构主义、功能主义（机能主义）、精神分析、行为主义、认知心理学、人本主义、生物学研究方法（生理心理学）,approach:接近；方法；途径,HOWDIDPSYCHOLOGYDEVELOP?,Structuralism-wasthefirstapproachtoinvestigatingpsychology,pioneeredbyWundthimself,whothoughtthattheobject（对象）ofpsychologicalinvestigationshouldbetheconsciousmind,andthatitshouldbestudiedbyintrospection（内省）(lookinginwardsatonesownmentalexperience)inordertobreakitdownintoitscomponentparts(suchasimages,sensationsandfeelings)likethescienceofchemistryhaddonewithchemicals.,Structuralism,Structuralism,Onestructuralist,Titchener,claimedtherewereatotalof46,708basicsensationsthatcombinedtoformthestructureofthehumanmind,buttheapproach（方法）wasverylimitedinitsabilitytoexplainandwasreplacedbyfunctionalism.,Structuralism,Structuralism-wasthefirstapproach（趋向于）toinvestigatingpsychology,pioneeredbyWundthimself,whothoughtthattheobject（对象）ofpsychologicalinvestigationshouldbetheconsciousmind,andthatitshouldbestudiedbyintrospection(lookinginwardsatonesownmentalexperience)inordertobreakitdownintoitscomponentparts(suchasimages,sensationsandfeelings)likethescienceofchemistryhaddonewithchemicals.,investigate:调查，研究,pioneered:倡导；作先驱,conscious:意识,introspection:内省,images:表象,sensation:感觉,feelings:情感,object:对象，客体,Structuralism,Structuralism-wasthefirstapproachtoinvestigatingpsychology,pioneeredbyWundthimself,whothoughtthattheobjectofpsychologicalinvestigationshouldbetheconsciousmind,andthatitshouldbestudiedbyintrospection(lookinginwardsatonesownmentalexperience)inordertobreakitdownintoitscomponentparts(suchasimages,sensationsandfeelings)likethescienceofchemistryhaddonewithchemicals.,结构主义是第一个研究心理学的方法，是由冯特本人提出来的，他认为心理学的研究对象应该是意识，而且应该是用内省（向内探查自己的体验）的方法去研究，目的是将其分解为各个部分（比如说，表象，感觉，情感），就像化学家研究化学一样。,Onestructuralist,Titchener,claimedtherewereatotalof46,708basicsensationsthatcombinedtoformthestructureofthehumanmind,buttheapproachwasverylimitedinitsabilitytoexplainandwasreplacedbyfunctionalism.,结构主义者之一，Tichener声称共有46078种基本的感觉，联合起来构成了人类意识的结构，但是这种方法在解释方面存在很大的局限，因此被功能主义取代了。,claimed:声称；宣称；断言,Structuralism,Functionalism-theapproachWilliamJamesadvocated（提倡）.JameswasinfluencedbyDarwinsviewsandarguedthattheworkingsofthemindarefunctional,tosurviveandadapt,soweshouldinvestigatewhatbehaviorandthoughtarefor.ManyofJamessinsights（见解）remainvalidtoday,butfunctionalismwassuperseded（取代）bythenexttwoverypowerfulapproaches（研究、方法）thatbothstartedaroundtheturnofthecentury.,Functionalism,Functionalism,Functionalism-theapproachWilliamJamesadvocated.JameswasinfluencedbyDarwinsviewsandarguedthattheworkingsofthemindarefunctional,tosurviveandadapt,soweshouldinvestigatewhatbehaviorandthoughtarefor.,这种方法是由WilliamJames提出的。James受Darwin观点的影响，认为意识的工作方式是功能性的，也需要去生存与适应，因此，我们应该研究行为和思想的原因。,Whatfor:为什么；为何目的,advocated:提倡，主张，拥护,Functionalism,ManyofJamessinsightsremainvalidtoday,butfunctionalismwassupersededbythenexttwoverypowerfulapproachesthatbothstartedaroundtheturnofthecentury.,insight:眼光，洞察力,valid:有效的，有根据的；正当的,supersede:取代，代替,James的很多观点在今天看来仍然是有用的，但是功能主义却被始于世纪之交的两种更强大（有说服力）的方法取代了。,Psychoanalysis-wasinfactamethodofthetherapydevelopedbySigmundFreudinAustria,butinmanymajorbooks,suchasTheinterpretationofdreams(1900),Freudbegandescribingindetailanunderlyingtheory（隐含的理论）ofthehumanmindandbehaviorthathashadanenormous(andcontroversial有争议的)impactonpsychology.Freudarguedthattheproperobjectofpsychologicalinvestigationshouldbetheunconsciousmind,andthatourbehaviorisdeterminedbyprocessesofwhichwearenotaware.,Psychoanalysis,Psychoanalysis,Psychoanalysis-wasinfactamethodofthetherapydevelopedbySigmundFreudinAustria,butinmanymajorbooks,suchasTheinterpretationofdreams(1900),Freudbegandescribingindetailanunderlyingtheoryofthehumanmindandbehaviorthathashadanenormous(andcontroversial)impactonpsychology.,精神分析理论实际上是由奥地利SigmundFreud发展出来的一种治疗方法，但是在他很多主要的书中，例如梦的解析（1900），Freud开始详细描述一个关于人类思想与行为的隐含的理论，对于心理学产生了重大的（并且是有争议的）影响。,Therapy：治疗，疗法,Underlying：隐含的，潜在的，基本的,Psychoanalysis,Freudarguedthattheproperobjectofpsychologicalinvestigationshouldbetheunconsciousmind,andthatourbehaviorisdeterminedbyprocessesofwhichwearenotaware.,Freud认为心理学的研究对象应该是无意识，我们的行为是由我们没有意识到的心理过程所决定的。,unconsciousmind：无意识，潜意识,Behaviorism-Behaviorists,suchasJohnWaston,wereextremelycritical（批评）ofalltheapproachesthatconcernedthemselveswith“mind”,andproposedthatpsychologyshouldonlyinvestigateobservablebehaviorifitwanttobeanobjectivescience.Thisapproach（方法）dominatedexperimentalpsychologyuntilthe1950s,whenastrongresurgence（再现）ofinterestinthe“mind”developedintheformofcognitiveandthehumanisticapproaches（人本主义的方法）,whichsuggestedthatbehaviorismignoredallthemostimportantandinterestingthingsthatgooninourheads.,Behaviorism,Behaviorism,Behaviorism-Behaviorists,suchasJohnWaston,wereextremelycriticalofalltheapproachesthatconcernedthemselveswith“mind”,andproposedthatpsychologyshouldonlyinvestigateobservablebehaviorifitwanttobeanobjectivescience.,concernoneselfwith：研究的对象是.,行为主义者，像JohnWaston，对所有以意识为研究对象的方法极为不满，并且认为心理学如果想成为一门客观的科学，就应该研究可以观测的行为。,objective：客观的,Cognitivepsychology-aimstoinvestigatethemindbyusingcomputerinformationprocessingideastoarriveattestablemodelsofhowthebrainworks,andthenapplyingscientificmethodstoconfirm（证实）thesemodels.Thecognitiveapproachhasenjoyedmuchsuccessandisaverydominantoneinpsychologytoday.,Testable：可验证的,Cognitivepsychology,认知心理学，目的是用计算机信息处理方式的观点去研究意识，建立起可验证的关于脑是如何工作的模型，然后利用科学的方法去证实这些模型。认知的方法取得了很多成功，是在当今心理学中占主导地位的研究方法之一。,TheHumanisticapproach,however,hashadlessofanimpactonpsychology,sinceithasdeliberately（故意地）adoptedalessscientificview（不怎么科学的观点）ofthehumanmindbyarguingthatpsychologyshouldfocusoneachindividualsconsciousexperienceandaimsinlife.（生活中意识经验和目标）,Humanisticapproach,人本主义的研究方法，对于心理学的影响较小，主要是因为对于人类意识它故意采取了不怎么科学的观点，认为心理学应该关注于每个个体在生活中的的意识经验和目标。,TheBiologicalapproachhasadvanced（发展了）evolutionary,physiological（生理学的）,andgeneticexplanationsforhumanbehaviorthroughoutthehistoryofpsychology.,Biologicalapproach,生物学的研究方法在心理学的历史上，生理心理学则发展了关于人类行为的进化的、生理的和基因的观点。,Chapter2,RESEARCHMETHODS,Variables,WHATDOPSYCHOLOGISTSINVESTIGATE?,VARIABLESAvariablesisanyobject（物体）,quality（特性）oreventthatchangesorvariesinsomeway.Examplesinclude:aggression,intelligence,time,height,amountofalcohol,drivingability,attraction.,OPERATIONALISATIONManyofthevariablesthatpsychologistsareinterestedinareabstractconcepts,suchasaggressionorintelligence.Operationalisation（操作化）referstotheprocessofmakingvariables（变量）physicallymeasurableortestable（在物理上可操作可测量）.Thisisdoneinpsychologybyrecordingsomeaspectofobservablebehaviorthatisassumedtobeindicateofthevariableunderconsideration.（所考虑变量的指标）,Forexample:Aggression-apsychologistmayrecordthenumberofpunchesthrown.Intelligenceapsychologistmayrecordthenumberofpuzzlessolvedinanhour,orcalculatethescoreonanIQtest.Reification（具体化）(regardinghypotheticalvariableslikeintelligenceashavingarealphysicalexistence)isadanger,however.,Variables,OBSERVATION,CASESTUDIES（案例研究）,SURVEYS,ETC.Inthesemethodsvariablearepreciselymeasuredinvaryingamountsofdetail（大量的事实）.,CORRELATIONS相关Variablesaremeasuredandcomparedtoseehowtheyco-vary（共变）witheachother(whatrelationshiptheyhavetogether).,EXPERIMENTS,Variables,WHATDOPSYCHOLOGISTSINVESTIGATE?,VARIABLESAvariablesisanyobject,qualityoreventthatchangesorvariesinsomeway.Examplesinclude:aggression,intelligence,time,height,amountofalcohol,drivingability,attraction.,变量是指以某种方式改变或变化的对象、质量或事件。例子包括：攻击性，智力，时间，高度，酒精含量，驾驶能力，吸引力等。,Variables,OPERATIONALISATIONManyofthevariablesthatpsychologistsareinterestedinareabstractconcepts,suchasaggressionorintelligence.Operationalisationreferstotheprocessofmakingvariablesphysicallymeasurableortestable.Thisisdoneinpsychologybyrecordingsomeaspectofobservablebehaviorthatisassumedtobeindicate指标ofthevariableunderconsideration.,许多心理学家感兴趣的是一些抽象的概念，比如攻击性和智力。操作化是指使变量变成物理上可测量或可验证的过程。在心理学上，这一过程的实施是通过记录一些可观察的行为来完成的，这些行为被假定为是我们所考虑的研究变量的指标。,Forexample:Aggression-apsychologistmayrecordthenumberofpunchesthrown.Intelligenceapsychologistmayrecordthenumberofpuzzlessolvedinanhour,orcalculatethescoreonanIQtest.Reification（具体化）(regardinghypotheticalvariableslikeintelligenceashavingarealphysicalexistence（真实存在）)isadanger,however.,Variables,比如说：攻击性可记录为击拳的次数。智力可记录为在一个小时内解决的问题数量或计算智力测验的得分。然而，具体化（指将诸如智力之类假设性的变量看成真实的物质上的存在）是危险的。,Variables,OBSERVATION,CASESTUDIES,SURVEYS,ETC.Inthesemethodsvariablearepreciselymeasuredinvaryingamountsofdetail.,CORRELATIONSVariablesaremeasuredandcomparedtoseehowtheyco-varywitheachother(whatrelationshiptheyhavetogether).,EXPERIMENTS,观察，个案研究，调查等等这些方法能从大量事实中准确地测量出变量。,相关将测量到的变量相比较，以发现彼此之间如何共同变化（它们之间有何关系）。,实验,Onevariable(theindependentvariable)isalteredtoseewhateffectithasonanothervariable(thedependentvariable).Theindependentvariableisthevariablethatismanipulated（操作）intwoormoreconditionstoseewhateffectithasonthedependentvariable.Thedependentvariableisthemainmeasuredoutcomeoftheexperiment,hopefullydueto（应归于）themanipulationoftheindependentvariable.Forexample,theindependentvariable(IV)ofalcoholcouldbemanipulatedtoseewhateffectithadonthedependentvariable(DV)ofdrivingabilitybytestingintwoconditions,onewithnoalcoholandtheotherwithfourpints（品脱）oflager（拉格啤酒）.,EXPERIMENTS,However,manyextraneousvariables(othervariablesthatcouldpotentiallyinfluencethedependentvariableapartfromtheindependentvariable),couldspoiltheexperimentandsocontrolsareemployedtopreventextraneousvariablesfrombecomingconfoundingvariables(thosethatactuallyaffectthedependentvariablestronglyenoughtodistort（扭曲）theeffectoftheindependentvariable).,EXPERIMENTS,Onevariable(theindependentvariable)isalteredtoseewhateffectithasonanothervariable(thedependentvariable).Theindependentvariableisthevariablethatismanipulatedintwoormoreconditionstoseewhateffectithasonthedependentvariable.Thedependentvariableisthemainmeasuredoutcomeoftheexperiment,hopefullyduetothemanipulationoftheindependentvariable.,EXPERIMENTS,改变一个变量（自变量），观察它对另一个变量（因变量）有什么影响。自变量是指在两个或两个以上的条件下对其进行操控，以发现对因变量有什么影响的变量。因变量是指实验当中主要测量的结果，期望（其变化）是由于对自变量的操控引起的。,Forexample,theindependentvariable(IV)ofalcoholcouldbemanipulatedtoseewhateffectithadonthedependentvariable(DV)ofdrivingabilitybytestingintwoconditions,onewithnoalcoholandtheotherwithfourpintsoflager.However,manyextraneousvariables(othervariablesthatcouldpotentiallyinfluencethedependentvariableapartfromtheindependentvariable),couldspoiltheexperimentandsocontrolsareemployedtopreventextraneousvariablesfrombecomingconfoundingvariables（混杂变量）(thosethatactuallyaffectthedependentvariablestronglyenoughtodistorttheeffectoftheindependentvariable).,EXPERIMENTS,比如说，我们可以操纵（控制）酒精这个自变量，通过观测它的两个条件：一个是没有喝酒，另外一个是喝了4品脱的啤酒，分别对因变量驾驶能力的影响。然而，许多额外变量（除了自变量外，那些对于因变量有潜在影响的变量）可能会干扰实验，因此，需要用控制的方法来预防额外变量变成混淆变量（那些实际上对于因变量有足够大影响的，以至于可以歪曲自变量影响的变量）。,Extraneousvariablescanbeeitherrandom(unsystematicvariablesthatcanaffectthedependentvariablebutshouldnotaffectoneconditionmorethananother)orconstant(thosethathaveasystematiceffectononeconditionmorethananother).Whilerandomerrorswillreducetheaccuracy（精确性）oftheresults,onlyconstanterrorsusuallytrulyconfoundtheexperimentalresults.,EXPERIMENTS,额外变量可能是随机的（非系统化的，可以在多种条件下影响因变量的变量），也可能是恒定的（那些与其他条件相比，在单一条件下，对于因变量有系统影响的变量）。随机误差可能会减少结果的精确度，只有恒定误差经常真正的混淆实验结果。,HOWDOPSYCHOLOGISTSINVESTIGATETHEIRHYPOTHESES?,Experimentalmethods,EXPERIMENTSAnexperimentinvolvesthemanipulationoftheindependentvariabletoseewhateffectithasonthedependentvariable,whileattemptingtocontroltheinfluenceofallotherextraneousvariables.,LABORATORYInthela