《新编简明英语语言学教程》

.,ACourseonLinguistics戴炜栋新编简明英语语言学教程（网络下载，调整修改中）,.,TheGoalsforthisCourse,Togetascientificviewonlanguage;Tounderstandsomebasictheoriesonlinguistics;Tounderstandtheapplicationsofthelinguistictheories,especiallyinthefieldsoflanguageteachingToprepareforthefutureresearchwork.,.,TheRequirementsforthiscourse,ClassattendanceClassroomdiscussionFulfillmentoftheassignmentExamination,.,ReferenceBooks,戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)，新编简明英语语言学教程，上海外语教育出版社。胡壮麟，(2001)，语言学教程，北京大学出版社。刘润清，(1995)，西方语言学流派，外语教学与研究出版社。Fromkin,V.cantbecombinedatwill.e.g.*bkli,*Iappleeat.,.,Languageisarbitrary,Arbitrary-nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes,e.g.“pen”byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith.,.,Languageissymbolicinnature,Symbolic-wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actionsideasbyconvention.“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”-Shakespeare,.,Languageisprimarilyvocal,Vocal-theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages;writingsystemcamemuchlaterthanspokenform.,.,Languageishuman-specific,Human-specific-differentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,e.g.birdsongs,beedance,animalcries.,.,Thedesign/definingfeaturesofhumanlanguage(CharlesHockett),ArbitrarinessProductivity/CreativityDualityDisplacementCulturaltransmission,.,Arbitrariness,-Nological(motivatedorintrinsic)connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings.Onomatopoeicwords(whichimitatenaturalsounds)aresomewhatmotivated(English:rumble,crackle,bang,.Chinese:putong,shasha,dingdang)Somecompoundwordsarenotentirelyarbitrary,e.g.type-writer,shoe-maker,air-conditioner,photocopy,.,Productivity/creativity,-Peculiartohumanlanguages，usersoflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore,e.g.wecanunderstandsentencelike“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthehotelbed”,thoughitdoesnotdescribeacommonhappeningintheworld.Agibboncallsystemisnotproductiveforgibbondrawalltheircallsfromafixedrepertoirewhichisrapidlyexhausted,makinganynoveltyimpossible.Thebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity,asitisusedtocommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinanydirection.Butfoodsourcesaretheonlykindofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeedance;beesdonot“talk”aboutthemselves,thehives,orwind,letaloneaboutpeople,animals,hopesordesires,.,Duality(doublearticulation),Lowerlevel-sounds(meaningless)Higherlevel-meaning(largerunitsofmeaning)Acommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent.Asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning(words),andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.(wemakedictionaryofalanguage,butwecannotmakeadictionaryofsentencesofthatlanguage.,.,Displacement,-Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent:realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.AgibbonneveruttersacallaboutsomethingheatelastyearThereissomethingspecialaboutthebeedancethough.Beescommunicatewithotherbeesaboutthefoodsourcestheyhavefoundwhentheyarenolongerinthepresenceofthefood.Inthissense,thebeedancehasacomponentofdisplacement.Butthiscomponentisveryinsignificant.Forthebeesmustcommunicateaboutthefoodimmediatelyonreturningtothehive.Theydonotdanceaboutthefoodtheydiscoveredlastmonthnordotheyspeculateaboutfuturediscoveries.,.,Culturaltransmission,-Languageisculturallytransmitted(throughteachingandlearning;ratherthanbyinstinct).Animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Allcats,gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhicharealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats,gibbonsandbees.AChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Thatis,itispassonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.Thestoryofawolfchild,apigchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage.,.,Functionsoflanguage,Phatic:establishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontact.Directive:getthehearertodosomething.Informative:giveinformationaboutfacts.Interrogative:getinformationfromothers.Expressive:expressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.Evocative:createcertainfeelingsinthehearer(amuse,startle,soothe,worryorplease)Performative:languageisusedtodothings,toperformactions.,.,Theoriginoflanguage,Thedivine-origintheory-LanguageisagiftofGodtomankind.Theinventiontheory-imitative,criesofnature,thegruntsofmenworkingtogether.Theevolutionarytheory-theresultofphysicalandpsychologicaldevelopment.,.,许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统.,当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介;当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具;当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体.,.,2.Whatislinguistics?,-Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.-Apersonwhostudieslinguisticsisknownasalinguist.,.,Fourprinciplesoflinguisticstudies,Exhaustiveness/adequacyConsistencyEconomyObjectivity,.,Thescopeormajorbranchesoflinguistics,TheoreticallinguisticsPhoneticsPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsUseoflinguisticsAppliedlinguisticsSociolinguisticsPsycholinguistics,.,Theoreticallinguistics,Phonetics-speechsound(description,classification,transcription):articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,auditoryphonetics.Phonology-soundpatternsoflanguagesMorphology-theformofwordsSyntax-therulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentence.Semantics-themeaningoflanguage(whenthemeaningoflanguageisconductedinthecontextoflanguageuse-Pragmatics),.,Useoflinguistics,Appliedlinguistics-linguisticsandlanguageteachingSociolinguistics-socialfactors(e.g.class,education)affectlanguageusePsycholinguistics-linguisticbehaviorandpsychologicalprocessStylistics-linguisticandliterature,.,Someotherapplications,AnthropologicallinguisticsNeurolinguisticsComputationallinguistics(e.g.machinetranslation),.,Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics,.,Descriptivevsprescriptive,Descriptive-describe/analyzelinguisticfactsobservedorlanguagepeopleactuallyuse(modernlinguistic)Prescriptive-laydownrulesfor“correct”linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage(traditionalgrammar),.,Synchronicvsdiachronic,Synchronicstudy-descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(modernlinguistics)Diachronicstudy-descriptionofalanguagethroughtime(historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime),.,Speechvswriting,Speech-primarymediumoflanguageWriting-laterdeveloped,.,Languevsparole(F.deSaussure),Langue-theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofthespeechcommunity.Parole-therealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.,.,Competenceandperformance(Chomsky),Competence-theidealusersknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguagePerformance-theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunicationChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.,.,Traditionalgrammarvsmodernlinguistics,Traditionalgrammar-prescriptive,written,Latin-basedframeworkModernlinguistics-descriptive,spoken,notnecessarilyLatin-basedframework,.,Chapter2Phonology,Languageisprimarilyvocal.Theprimarymediumofhumanlanguageissound.Linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds,butinspeechsounds-soundsthatconveymeaninginhumancommunication.,.,Phonetics,-Abranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription,e.g.pbilabial,stop.,.,Threebranchesofphonetics,Articulatoryphonetics-fromthespeakerspointofview,“howspeakersproducespeechsounds”Auditoryphonetics-fromthehearerspointofview,“howsoundsareperceived”Acousticphonetics-fromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanother.,.,Articulatoryphonetics,.,Speechorgans:threeimportantareas,Pharyngealcavity-thethroat;Theoralcavity-themouth;Nasalcavity-thenose.,.,Thediagramofspeechorgans,LipsTeethTeethridge(alveolar)HardpalateSoftpalate(velum)UvulaTipoftongueBladeoftongueBackoftongueVocalcordsPharyngealcavityNasalcavity,.,Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds,-AstandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscriptionistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingonelettertorepresentonespeechsound.Broadtranscription-usedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralpurpose,withoutdiacritics,e.g.clearl,pitNarrowtranscription-usedbyphoneticianforcarefulstudy,withdiacritics,e.g.darkl,aspiratedp,.,Somemajorarticulatoryvariables,-dimensionsonwhichspeechsoundsmayvary:Voicing-voicedfricatives:f,v,s,z,W,T,F,V,h;affricates:tF,dV;liquids:l(lateral),r;nasals:m,n,N;glides/semivowels:w,j.,.,Theplaceofarticulation,bilabial:p,b,m,w;labiodental:f,v;dental:W,T;alveolar:t,d,s,z,n,l,r;palatal:F,V,tF,dV,j;velar:k,g,N;glottal:h.,.,Theplaceofarticulation,Bilabial;Labiodental;Dentalorinterdental;Alveolar;Palatoalveolar;Palatal;Velar;Uvular;Glottal.,.,ThedescriptionofEnglishconsonants,.,Classificationofvowels,-Englishvowelscanbedividedintotwolargecategories:Monophthongsorpure/singlevowelsDiphthongsorglidingvowels,.,Monophthongsorpure/singlevowels,-Accordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighestintheprocessofproduction,thevowelscanbedistinguishedas:frontvowels:I:,I,e,Z,A,B;centralvowels:E:,E,Q;backvowels:u:,u,C:,C,B:.,.,Accordingtotheopennessofthemouth,Close:I:,I,u:,u.Semi-close:e,E:;Semi-open:E,C;Open:A,B,C,B:,Q;,.,Thediagramofsinglevowelclassificationbyapplyingthetwocriteriasofarmentioned:,.,Accordingtotheshapeofthelipsorthedegreeofliprounding,rounded:u:,u,C:,C;unrounded:I:,I,e,Z,A,B,E:,E,Q,B:.,.,Accordingtothelengthofthevowels,long:I:,E:,u:,C:,B:short:I,e,Z,A,E,Q,B,u,C.,.,Diphthongs/glidingvowels,ei,ai,aU,EU,Ri,iE,ZE,UE.,.,Exercises:underlinethewordsthatbeginwithasoundasrequired.,Abilabialconsonant:madsadbadcadpadhadladAvelarconsonant:nodgodcodpodrodLabiodentalconsonant:ratfatsatmatchatvatpatAnalveolarconsonant:nicklicksicktickkickquickApalato-alveolarconsonant:sipshiptipchiplipzipAdentalconsonant:liebuythighthytieryeAglide:onewaryolkrush,.,Underlinethewordsthatendwithasoundasrequired:,AfricativepayhorsetoughricebreathpushsingwreathehangcavemessageAnasaltrainbangleaflimbAstopdrillpipefitcrabfogridelaughrackthroughtipAnaffricate:racksuchridgebooze,.,Underlinethewordsthatcontainthesoundasrequired:,Acentralvowel:madlotbutbootwordAfrontvowel:reedpadloadfatebitbedcookAroundedvowel:whohebusherhittruebossbarwalkAbackvowel:paidreapfooltopgoodfather,.,Describetheunderlinedconsonantsaccordingtothreedimensions:,vd/vlplacemannerLetterBrotherSunnyHopperItchingLodgerCallingSingingRobbereither,.,Phonology,Phonologystudiesthepatterningofspeechsounds,thatis,thewaysinwhichspeechsoundsformsystemsandpatternsinhumanlanguages.,.,Phoneticsitisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.,.,Phone,phoneme,allophone,.,Phone,Aphone-aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedont,e.g.bI:titisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyinpIt,tIpandspIt.,.,Allophone,Allophones-thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.,.,Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistributionandminimalpair.,.,Phonemiccontrast,Phonemiccontrast-differentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrast,e.g./b/and/p/inbItandpIt.,.,Complementarydistribution,Complementarydistribution-allophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,e.g.darklbutthegsoundispronouncedintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,paradigmatic.,.,Suprasegmentalfeatures,Suprasegmentalfeatures-thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments(largerthanphoneme):stresstoneintonation,.,Syllable(whatissyllable?),AncientGreek:aunitofspeechsoundconsistingofavoweloravowelwithoneormorethanoneconsonant.Dictionary:wordorpartofawordwhichcontainsavowelsoundorconsonantactingasavowel.Thesyllableconsistsofthreeparts:theONSET,thePEAK,theCODA,e.g.mAn.Thepeakistheessentialpart.Itisusuallyformedbyavowel.Butl,nandmmightalsofunctionaspeaksasin“apple,hidden,communism”.,.,Stress,WordstressSentencestress,.,Wordstress,ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,e.g.ashiftinstressinEnglishmaychangethepartofspeechofaword:verb:im5port;in5crease;re5bel;re5cordnoun:5import;5increase;5rebel;5record,.,Wordstress,Similaralterationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements:compound:5blackbird;5greenhouse;5hotdognounphrase:black5bird;green5house;hot5dog,.,Wordstress,Themeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationsof-ingformsandnouns:modifier:5dining-room;5readingroom;5sleepingbagdoer:sleeping5baby;swimming5fish;flying5plane,.,Sentencestress,Sentencestress-therelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofasentence.Generally,nouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronounsarestressed.Othercategorieslikearticles,personpronouns,auxiliaryverbsprepositionsandconjunctionsareusuallynotstressed.Note:forpragmaticreason,thisruleisnotalwaysright,e.g.wemaystressanypartinthefollowingsentences.Heisdrivingmycar.Mymotherboughtmeanewskirtyesterday.,.,Tone,Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Englishisnotatonelanguage,butChineseis.ma妈(level)ma麻(thesecondrise)ma马(thethirdrise)ma骂(thefourthfall),.,Intonation,Whenpitch,stressandlengthvariationsaretiedtothesentenceratherthantotheword,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Englishhasthreetypesofintonationthataremostfrequentlyused:fallingtone(matteroffactstatement)risingtone(doubtsorquestion)thefall-risetone(impliedmessage)Forinstance,“Thatsnotthebookhewants.”,.,Grammaticalfunctionsofintonations,-Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,esp.inEnglish.a)Itmayindicatedifferentsentencetypesbypitchdirection.,.,Grammaticalfunctionsofintonations,b)Itmayimposedifferentstructuresonthesentencebydividingitintodifferentintonationunits,e.g.“JohndidntcomebecauseofMarry”Withinoneintonationunit,itmeans:Johncame,butithadnothingtodowithMarry.Withtwointonationunits,itmeans:MarrywasthereasonwhyJohndidntcome.Exercises:Thinkoftheutteranceindifferentintonations:“Thosewhoboughtquicklymadeaprofit.”,.,Grammaticalfunctionsofintonations,c)Itcanmakeacertainpartofasentenceespeciallyprominentbyplacingnucleusonit,e.g.Jackcameyesterdaybytrain.,.,Grammaticalfunctionsofintonations,d)Itsattitudinalfunctions.Fallingtone-matter-of-factstatement,downrightassertion,commands.Risingtone-politeness,encouragement,pleading.Note:thesecanonlybeverygeneralindications.Thespecificattitudinalmeaningofanintonationpatternmustbeinterpretedwithinacontext.,.,Chapter3Morphology,Morphologyreferstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.,.,Openclasswordandclosedclassword,Openclasswords-contentwordsofalanguagetowhichwecanregularlyaddnewwords,suchasnouns,adjectives,verbsandadverbs,e.g.beatnik(amemberoftheBeatGeneration),hacker,email,internet,“做秀，时装秀”inChinese.Closedclasswords-grammaticalorfunctionalwords,suchasconjunction,articles,prepositionandpronouns.,.,Morpheme-theminimalunitofmeaning,-Wordsarecomposedofmorphemes.Wordsmayconsistofonemorphemeormoremorphemes,e.g.1-morphemeboy,desire2-morphemeboy+ish,desir(e)+ble3-morphemeboy+ish+ness,desir(e)+bl(e)+ity4-morphemegentle+man+li+ness,un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity5-morphemeun+gentle+man+li+ness6-morphemeanti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism,.,Affix,Prefix-morphemesthatoccuronlybeforeothers,e.g.un-,dis,anti-,ir-,etc.Suffix-morphemesthatoccuronlyafterothers,e.g.-ful,-er,-ish,-ness,-able,-tive,tion,etc.,.,Freemorphemetheyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaning,e.g.a)number:tablesapplescarsb)person,finitenessandaspect:talk/talks/talking/talkedc)case:John/Johns,.,Someotherterms,RootStemBase,.,Root,Arootisthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixes(inflectional(1965)AspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax;(1981)LecturesonGovernmentandBinding;(1986)Barriers(1993)AMinimalistProgramforLinguisticTheory;(1995)TheMinimalistProgram;(1998)TheMinimalistInquiry,.,Criteriaongoodgrammar,ObservationaladequacyDescriptiveadequacyExplanatoryadequacyTheultimategoalforanytheoryistoexplain.TGdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinthatitnotonlyaimsatlanguagedescription,butalsoitsexplanation.,.,Chomskyismuchmoreinterestedinthesimilarities(languageuniversals)betweenlanguagesratherthantheirdifferences.,Linguistsshouldattempttofindagrammaticalframeworkwhichwillbesuitableforalllanguages;Linguistsshouldconcentrateontheelementsandconstructionsthatareavailabletoalllanguagesratherthanonelementsthatactuallyoccurinalllanguages.TherearelikelytobeuniversalconstraintsonthewayslinguisticelementsarecombinedChomskyproposedthatthegrammarsofallhumanlanguagesshareacommonframework(UniversalGrammar).,.,Categories,Categoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword-levelcategories(traditionally,partsofspeech),.,Word-levelcategories,Majorlexicalcategories:N,V,Adj,Prep.MinorLexicalcategories:Det,Deg,Qual,Auxi,Conj.,.,Thecriteriaonwhichcategoriesaredetermined,MeaningInflectionDistributionNote:Themostreliablecriterionofdeterminingawordscategoryisitsdistribution.,.,Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures,Phrasecategories-thesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrasecategories,suchasNP(N),VP(V),AP(A),PP(P).Thestructure:specifier+head+complementHead-thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedSpecifier-thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsComplement-thewordsontherightsideoftheheads,