3 二手数据实证研究方法 阅读材料Chapter 8 Using secondary data

256 Chapter8 When first considering how to answer their research question(s) or meet their objectives, few of our students consider initially the possibility of reanalysing data that have already been collected for some other purpose. Such data are known as secondary data. Most automatically think in terms of collecting new (primary) data specifically for that purpose. Yet, despite this, such secondary data can provide a useful source from which to answer, or partially to answer, your research question(s). Secondary data include both raw data and published summaries. Most organisations collect and store a variety of data to support their operations: for example, payroll details, copies of letters, minutes of meetings and accounts of sales of goods or services. Quality daily news- papers contain a wealth of data, including reports about takeover bids and companies share prices. Government departments undertake surveys and publish official statistics covering social, demographic and economic topics. Consumer research organisations collect data that are used subsequently by different clients. Trade organisations collect data from their members on topics such as sales that are subsequently aggregated and published. 8.1 Introduction Learning outcomes By the end of this chapter you should be able to: identify the full variety of secondary data that are available; appreciate ways in which secondary data can be utilised to help to answer research question(s) and to meet objectives; understand the advantages and disadvantages of using secondary data in research projects; use a range of techniques, including published guides and the Internet, to locate secondary data; evaluate the suitability of secondary data for answering research question(s) and meeting objectives in terms of coverage, validity, reliability and measurement bias; apply the knowledge, skills and understanding gained to your own research project. Using secondary data M08_SAUN6860_05_SE_C08.QXD 12/2/09 1:05 pm Page 256 257 These days, data about peoples whereabouts, purchases, behaviour and personal lives are gathered, stored and shared on a scale that no repressive politi- cal dictator would ever have thought possible. Much of the time, there is nothing obviously sinister about this. Governments say they need to gather data to assist the fight against terrorism or protect public safety; commercial organisations argue that they do it to deliver goods and services more effectively. But the widespread use of electronic data-gathering and processing is remarkable compared with the situation even as recently as 10 years ago. We can all think of examples of how the technology reveals information about what we have been doing. The Oyster payment card used on the London Underground system tells those who want to know where we have travelled and at what time; the mobile phone allows identification of where we are at a partic- ular time and the credit card will show where and when we make purchases; many of our telephone calls to call centres are recorded and the search engine Google stores data on our web searches for 18 months. Such data are obtained every time we interact directly or indirectly with these organisations electronic systems. These data are often reused for purposes other than that for which they were originally collected. They are aggregated to provide information about, for example, different geographical regions or social groups. They are merged with other data to form new data sets, the creation of these secondary data sets allowing new relationships to be explored. They are also made available or sold to other people and organ- isations for new purposes as secondary data. Some of these data, in particular, documents such as company minutes, are available only from the organisations that produce them, and so access will need to be negotiated (Section 6.3). Others, including government surveys such as a census of population, are widely available in published form as well as via the Internet or on CD-ROM in university libraries. A growing variety have been deposited in, and are available from, data archives. In addition, the vast majority of companies and professional organisations have their own Internet sites from which data may be obtained. Online computer databases containing company information can be accessed via the Internet through information gateways, such as Biz/Ed (Table 3.5). For certain types of research project, such as those requiring national or international com- parisons, secondary data will probably provide the main source to answer your research ques- tion(s) and to address your objectives. However, if you are undertaking your research project as part of a course of study, we recommend that you check the assessment regulations before Oyster card Source: Philip Lewis 2008. M08_SAUN6860_05_SE_C08.QXD 12/2/09 1:05 pm Page 257 258 8 ChapterUsing secondary data deciding to rely entirely on secondary data. You may be required to collect primary data for your research project. Most research questions are answered using some combination of secondary and primary data. Where limited appropriate secondary data are available, you will have to rely mainly on data you collect yourself. In this chapter we examine the different types of secondary data that are likely to be available to help you to answer your research question(s) and meet your objectives, how you might use them (Section 8.2), and a range of methods, including published guides, for locating these data (Section 8.3). We then consider the advantages and disadvantages of using secondary data (Section 8.4) and discuss ways of evaluating their validity and reliability (Section 8.5). We do not attempt to provide a comprehensive list of secondary data sources, as this would be an impossible task within the space available. 8.2 Types of secondary data and uses in research Secondary data include both quantitative and qualitative data (Section 5.4), and they are used principally in both descriptive and explanatory research. The data you use may be raw data, where there has been little if any processing, or compiled data that have received some form of selection or summarising (Kervin 1999). Within business and management research such data are used most frequently as part of a case study or survey research strategy. However, there is no reason not to include secondary data in other research strategies, including archival research, action research and experimental research. Different researchers (e.g. Bryman 1989; Dale et al. 1988; Hakim 1982, 2000; Robson 2002) have generated a variety of classifications for secondary data. These classifications do not, however, capture the full variety of data. We have therefore built on their ideas to create three main sub-groups of secondary data: documentary data, survey-based data, and those compiled from multiple sources (Figure 8.1). Documentary secondary data Documentary secondary data are often used in research projects that also use primary data collection methods. However, you can also use them on their own or with other sources of secondary data, for example for business history research within an archival research strategy. Documentary secondary data include written materials such as notices, correspondence (including emails), minutes of meetings, reports to shareholders, diaries, transcripts of speeches and administrative and public records (Box 8.1). Written docu- ments can also include books, journal and magazine articles and newspapers. These can be important raw data sources in their own right, as well as a storage medium for com- piled data. You could use written documents to provide qualitative data such as man- agers espoused reasons for decisions. They could also be used to generate statistical measures such as data on absenteeism and profitability derived from company records (Bryman 1989). Documentary secondary data also include non-written materials (Figure 8.2), such as voice and video recordings, pictures, drawings, films and television programmes (Robson 2002), DVDs and CD-ROMs as well as organisations databases. These data can be analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively. In addition, they can be used to help to triangulate findings based on other data, such as written documents and primary data collected through observation, interviews or questionnaires (Chapters 9, 10 and 11). For your research project, the documentary sources you have available will depend on whether you have been granted access to an organisation s records as well as on your M08_SAUN6860_05_SE_C08.QXD 12/2/09 1:05 pm Page 258 259 Types of secondary data and uses Secondary data Written materials Non-written materials CensusesAd hoc surveys Survey Examples: Organisations databases, such as personnel or production. Organisations communications, such as emails, letters, memos. Organisations websites. Reports and minutes of committees. Journals. Newspapers. Diaries. Interview transcripts. Examples: Media accounts, including TV and radio. Voice recordings. Video recordings. Examples: Financial Times country reports. Government publications. Books. Journals. Examples: Industry statistics and reports. Government publications. European Union publications. Books. Journals. Examples: Governments censuses: Census of Population, Census of Employment. Examples: Government: Family Spending, Labour Market Trends. Organisation: BMRB Internationals Target Group Index, Employee attitude surveys. Examples: Governments surveys. Organisations surveys. Academics surveys. Multiple source Area based Time-series based Continuous and regular surveys Documentary Figure 8.1Types of secondary data Source: Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill, 2006. success in locating library, data archive and commercial sources (Section 8.3). Access to an organisation s data will be dependent on gatekeepers within that organisation (Section 6.3). In our experience, those research projects that make use of documentary secondary data often do so as part of a within-company action research project or a case study of a particular organisation. Survey-based secondary data Survey-based secondary data refers to data collected using a survey strategy, usually by questionnaires (Chapter 11) that have already been analysed for their original purpose. Such data normally refer to organisations, people or households. They are made available as compiled data tables or, increasingly frequently, as a downloadable matrix of raw data (Section 12.2) for secondary analysis. Survey-based secondary data will have been collected through one of three distinct sub-types of survey strategy: censuses, continuous/regular surveys or ad hoc surveys (Figure 8.1). Censuses are usually carried out by governments and are unique because, unlike surveys, participation is obligatory (Hakim 2000). Consequently, they provide very good coverage of the population surveyed. They include censuses of population, which have been carried out in many countries since the eighteenth century and in the UK M08_SAUN6860_05_SE_C08.QXD 12/2/09 1:05 pm Page 259 260 8 ChapterUsing secondary data since 1801 (Office for National Statistics 2001), and other surveys, such as the UK Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings. Published tabulations are available via the Internet for more recent UK censuses, but it is now also possible to obtain the raw data 100 years after census via the Internet (see Table 8.3). In contrast, the UK Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, which replaced the New Earnings Survey (19702003), provides information on the levels, make-up and distribution of earnings as well as details of hours worked and is only published online (Office for National Statistics 2007a). The data from censuses con- ducted by many governments are intended to meet the needs of government departments as well as of local government. As a consequence they are usually clearly defined, well documented and of a high quality. Such data are easily accessible in compiled form, and are widely used by other organisations and individual researchers. Continuous and regular surveys are those surveys, excluding censuses, that are repeated over time (Hakim 1982). They include surveys where data are collected through- out the year, such as the UK s Social Trends (Office for National Statistics 2007d), and those repeated at regular intervals. The latter include the Labour Force Survey, which since 1998 has been undertaken quarterly using a core set of questions by Member States throughout the European Union. This means that some comparative data are available for Member States, although access to these data is limited by European and individual coun- tries legislation (Office for National Statistics 2007a). Non-governmental bodies also carry out regular surveys. These include general-purpose market research surveys such as BMRB International s Target Group Index. Because of the Target Group Index s commer- cial nature, the data are very expensive. However, BMRB International has provided copies of reports (usually over three years old) to between 20 and 30 UK university libraries. Many large organisations undertake regular surveys, a common example being the employee attitude survey. However, because of the sensitive nature of such informa- tion, it is often difficult to gain access to such survey data, especially in its raw form. Census and continuous and regular survey data provide a useful resource with which to compare or set in context your own research findings. Aggregate data are often available via the Internet, on CD-ROMs or in published form in libraries (Section 8.3), in particular, for government surveys. When using these data you need to check when they were collected, as it often takes at least a year for publication to occur! If you are undertaking Box 8.1 Focus on student research Using documentary secondary data Sasha was interested in how her work placement organisation dealt with complaints by customers. Her mentor within the organisation arranged for her to have access to the paper-based files containing cus- tomers letters of complaint and the replies sent by the organisations customer-relations team (written docu- mentary secondary data). Reading through the cus- tomers letters, Sasha soon realised that many of these customers wrote to complain because they had not received a satisfactory response when they had complained earlier by telephone. She, therefore, asked her mentor if records were kept of complaints made by customersbytelephone.Hermentorsaidthatsummary details of all telephone conversations by the customer- relations team, including complaints, were kept in their database (written documentary secondary data) and offered to find out precisely what data were held. Her mentor was, however, doubtful as to whether these data would be as detailed as the customers letters. On receiving details of the data held in the customer- relations database, Sasha realised that the next stage would be to match the complaints data from the paper- based files with telephone complaints data. The latter, she hoped, would enable her to to obtain a complete list of all complaints and set the written complaints in context of all complaints received by the organisation. M08_SAUN6860_05_SE_C08.QXD 12/2/09 1:05 pm Page 260 261 research in one UK organisation, you could use these data to place your case-study organ- isation within the context of its industry group or division using the Census of Employment. Aggregated results of the Census of Employment can be found in Labour Market Trends as well as via the UK government s official statistics information gateway national statistics. Alternatively, you might explore issues already highlighted by data from an organisation survey through in-depth interviews. Survey secondary data may be available in sufficient detail to provide the main data set from which to answer your research question(s) and to meet your objectives. Alternatively, they may be the only way in which you can obtain the required data. If your research ques- tion is concerned with national variations in consumer spending it is unlikely that you will be able to collect sufficient data. You, therefore, will need to rely on secondary data such as those contained in Family Spending (formerly the Family Expenditure Survey; Office for National Statistics 2007b). This reports findings from the Expenditure and Foods Survey. For some research questions and objectives suitable data will be available in published form. For others, you may need more disaggregated data. This may be available via the Internet (Section 3.4), on CD-ROM, or from archives (Section 8.3). We have found that for most business and management research involving secondary data you are unlikely to find all the data you require from one source. Rather, your research project is likely to involve detective work in which you build your own multiple-source data set using different data items from a variety of secondary data sources and perhaps linking these to primary data you have collected yourself (Box 8.2). Like all detective work, finding data that help to answer a research question or meet an objective is immensely satisfying. Types of secondary data and uses Box 8.2 Focus on management research Comparing eating habits in 1975 and 2000 Since 1975 food preparation and consumption in the UK has seen further and more intense dependence on food being treated as a commercial commodity. Eating and drinking out, the growth of pre-prepared conven- ience foods and the diffusion of domestic technologies have all impacted on the way in which food is provi- sioned and consumed. By 2000 eating and drinking out had become a thoroughly established social norm and food preparation a less time consuming activity. In an article published in the British Journal of Sociology, Cheng et al. (2007)