lecture 8 Change in word meaning

ChangesinWordMeaning,Overview,GeneralremarksTypesofsemanticchangeCausesofchangeinwordmeaningSemanticdevelopmentorchangeresultingfromthefigurativeuseofwords,Vocabularyisthemostunstableelementofalanguageasitisundergoingconstantchangesbothinformandcontent.Comparativelyspeaking,thecontentisevenmoreunstablethantheform.,GeneralRemarks,almosteverywordweusetodayhasaslightlydifferentmeaningfromtheoneithadacenturyago(Quirk)Shakespeareisperhapsmoredifficulttounderstandthanmorerecentwritingsbecausemanyofhiswordswereusedindifferentsensefromwhattheyhavenowincontemporarydictionaries.Eg.“therivalsofmywatch,bidthemmakehaste.”(partner)“Howpregnantsometimeshisrepliesare.”(meaningful),results,Polysemyprimmarymeaningderivativemeaninge.g.,harvest(autumn)assume(takein,receive)CentralmeaningSecondarymeaninge.g.,power:abilitytoact,Thesecondarymeaninghasbeenspecializedorgeneralizedortransferred.Itmayhasnodirectrelationwiththecentralmeaning:concatenationCandidateCheatertreacle,Typesofsemanticchange,Generalization/Extensionofmeaning,Specialization/Restrictionofmeaning,Elevation/Ameliorationofmeaning,Degradation/Degenerationofmeaning,ExtensionofMeaning,Itisalsocalledwideningofmeaningorgeneralization.Itsaprocessbywhichawordwhichoriginallyhadaspecializedmeaninghasnowbecomegeneralized.,Fourkindsofextension,Fromspecifictogeneral,Fromconcretetoabstract,Frompropernounstocommonnouns,Fromtechnicaltermstogeneralwords,Fromspecifictogeneral,Example,Picture:originally:apaintingordrawing,Thepresentmeaning,aphotographacinematicpictureanx-raypictureaTVpicturearadio-telescopepictureanypicture,MoreExamples,rubbish,rubble,anythingworthless,Fromtechnicaltermstogeneralwords,Countdown:thecountingaloudofnumbersinreverseorderbeforesth.happens,esp.beforeaspacecraftislaunched.emergencysituationThatwouldleadtoacountdowninCambodia.,Feedback:itoccursinamachineorsystemwhenpartofthepower,soundorinformationproducedgoesbackintothemachineorsystem.Response:Thereaderfeedbackwasgenerallyfavorable.,FromConcretetoAbstract,Matter:timber,thehardpartofatree,alotofabstractmeanings:,1)Theworldismadeofmatter.,Substance(s)ofwhichthephysicalthingismade,2)Thematterinyouressayisgood.,Materialforthoughtorexpression,3)ThisisamatterIknowlittleabout.,Somethinginwhichattentionisgiven,4)Itmadenomattertohimthathisbrotherlostallhismoney(importance).,Frompropernounstocommonnouns,antonomasia,theuseofapropernountoconveyageneralidea,Examples,Sandwich:Itnowdenotesapopularfastfood.ItoriginatesfromJohnMontague,FourthearlofSandwichin18thcentury,England.Hewassofondofgamblingthatheoftenforgothismeals.Heoftenorderedslicesofbreadwiththickpiecesofroastbeefstuffedbetweenthembebroughttohimsohecouldeatwhileplaying.Later,peopleusedhisnametorefertoallsimilarfood.,GreekMyth:akingpunishedforhismisdeedsbyhavingtostandinwaterthatrecedeswhenhetriestodrinkitandunderfruitthatmovesawayashereachesforit.,Tantalus,Tantalize,Argus,Greekmyth:agiantwith100eyes.Afterhewaskilled,hiseyesweretransferredtothePeacockstail,Argus-eyed:keen-sighted;observant,WehavedecideditisimpossibletocheatwhenthatArgus-eyedprofessorgivesanexam,Restrictionofmeaningmeansthatawordofwidemeaningacquiresanarrower,specialisedsensewhichisapplicabletoonlyoneoftheobjectsithadpreviouslydenoted.,RestrictionofMeaning,liquor,OldMeaning,Specializedmeaning,liquid,alcoholicdrink,meat,OldMeaning,SpecializedMeaning,food,Fleshofanimals,word,Oldmeaning,Specialization,disease,discomfort,illness,poison,drink,Poisonousdrink,wife,woman,marriedwoman,accident,event,unluckyevent,girl,Achild,Afemalechild,现代英语中把日常生活用语转用到科技方面，这也是词义缩小的一种现象。,Acleanroom和awhiteroom均为日常生活用语，现指用于精密零件制造的“绝尘室”,“Acleanroom”or“awhiteroom”,increasinglybecomesshoptalk.,ElevationofMeaning,Wordsoftenrisefromahumblebeginningtoapositionofgreaterimportance.Thischangeiscalledelevationofmeaning.(SeeP98),Pioneer:footsoldierwhoclearedthewayforanyarmybyfallingtrees,etc.,Apersonwhogoesbefore,preparingthewayforothers,asascientistdoingexploratorywork,Fondfoolish,Tenderandaffectionate,minister,Old:anattendantNew:apersonattheheadofadepartmentofastate.,marshal,Originally:Ahorsetender,PresentMeaning:Officerofhighestrank,craftsman,Old:apersongoodatcheatingNow:amanwhodoesaskilledjob,usu,withhands,shrewd,Oldmeaning:wicked;malicious,Now:keen-witted;cleverorsharpinpracticalaffairs,Degradationofmeaning,Wordswithacommendatorymeaningmaybecomeoneswithaderogatorysense.Thisiscalleddegradationofmeaningordeterioration.,Example,Villainafarmeramanguiltyofevildeeds,clown,apeasantamanwhoisclumsyandbehavesstupidly,Wordoldmeaningdegrademeaningsillyhappyfoolishknaveboydishonestpersoncriticizeappraisefindfaultwithlustpleasuresexualdesire,Causeofchangesinwordmeaning,HistoricalcauseSocialcauseForeigninfluencesLinguisticcausePsychologicalcause,Historicalcause:Itoftenhappensthatthoughawordretainitsoriginalform,itsmeaninghaschangedbecausetheobjectwhichitdenoteshaschanged,thisisthehistoricalcauseofsemanticchange.pencil(fromLatinwordmeaning)alittletailorafinebrush,likeourchinesepenwhenitwasmadeofwoodandgraphite石墨，itwasstillcalleda“pencil”,Socialcause:changeinwordmeaningresultingfromaconstantverbaltrafficbetweencommonwordsandvarioustechnicalwordsisreferredtoassocialcauseofsemanticchangeHotandcoldhavechangedtheirmeaninginthefieldofpolitics,asin“coldwar”,”hotwar”and“hotline”,Foreigninfluences:aparticularlyimportantcauseofchangeofmeaninginwordshasbeentheinfluenceofforeignwordsstool:anykindofseatforonepersonincludingakingsseatTheFrenchwordchairwasadoptedtodenoteamorecomfortablepieceoffurniture.,Linguisticcause语言的影响:Towardsellipsis省略Ageneral-ageneralofficerUniformuniformdressTowardsanalogy类推Energetic(精力旺盛)formerlymeant”tooperate,effect”asin“themostenergeticchemicals”,nowenergeticmeans“of,havingorshowingenergy,vigorous,forceful”asifithadbeenderivedfromenergy,Psychologicalcause1）Euphemism：Itrefersthatthewordchangedafterpeopleusemild,agreeablelanguagewhenspeakingofanunpleasantorembarrassingfactandoftaboosubjectsassexandtheexcretiveprocessesofthebodysuchasdeathcanbeusedasgowest.2）Grandiloquence（夸张）：Itreferstotheuseoflong,important-soundingwordsforeffect.Thedesiretoupgradeorraisethesocialstatusofaposition,occupation,orinstitutionbychangingitscommonnametoonefelttoconfergreaterdignityorimportanceisanotherpsychologicalfactorinthechangeofwordmeaning.Inasense,itisaformofeuphemism.e.g.hairstylistwasupgradedashairologistforbarbers.3）Cynicism（挖苦语）：Itrefersthatthedesiretosneerandtobesarcasticcausethesemanticchange.e.g.sanctimonious(假装神圣)meansdevoted,holyorscaredandnowmeanspretendingtobeveryholyorpious.,Semanticdevelopmentorchangeresultingfromthefigurativeuseofwords,Thefigurativeusereferstotheexpressionofsayingsomethingisanotherthingtherebymakingthespeechorarticlevividandstimulatingthereadersimagination.Theoriginalthingiscalledtenorwhilethingcomparedtoiscalledvehicle.,1.Metaphor：Metaphorisafigureofspeechcontaininganimpliedcomparisonbasedonassociationofsimilarity,inwhichawordoraphraseordinarilyandprimarilyusedforonethingisappliedtoanother,aprocesswhichoftenresultsinsemanticchangeorfigurativeextensionofmeaning.e.g.abeautifulwomanmaybedescribedasavisionAcunningpersonisoftenreferredtoasafox.,2.Metonymy：Metonymyisafigureofspeechbywhichanobjectorideaisdescribedbythenameofsomethingcloselyrelatedtoit.Thatistosay,atransferofnamesoccursbetweentwothingsassociatedbyactualcontiguity,eitherbyphysicalcontact,orcontactthroughvariousthoughassociations.Metonymydoesnotrevealanynewrelationsbutarisesbetweenwordsalreadyrelatedtoeachotherindifferentways,forexample,ThewhitehouseforthepresidentorforthepresidentialstaffoftheUnitedStates.,1）Signforthepersonorthingsignified.crown,scepter,throneforking.2）Containerforitscontents.thebottleforalcoholicdrink.3）Theabstractforthec