第7章非实质损坏的承保

1、第七章 其他非实质损失方面的承保：共同海损、救助费用、碰撞责任与航程终止 1 序言“协会货物条文（一切险）”（Institute Cargo Clauses A）承保的是一切险，第1条是明确承保货物在海上运输中受到实质损失或损坏（loss of or damage），但该协会条文也承保了其他非实质损失，这种损失基本上就是费用或者金钱的支出。本章就是去分析承保的非实质损失是什么，同时请注意“协会货物条文（B）&（C）”（Institute Cargo Clauses B&C）也是有同样的条文，只是实质损失或非实质损失（除了共同海损与救助费用）只局限在承保的列明风险所导致，比一切险局限的多。以下先

2、节录有关的条文，这包括是条文2、3与12，如下：“General Average2. This insurance covers general average and salvage charges, adjusted or determined according to the contract of carriage and/or the governing law and practice, incurred to avoid or in connection with the avoidance of loss from any cause except those excluded

3、 in Clauses 4, 5, 6 and 7 below. (本条文的详细介绍请看以下第2段的共同海损与第3段的海上救助)Both to Blame Collision Clause3. This insurance indemnifies the Assured, in respect of any risk insured herein, against liability incurred under any Both to Blame Collision Clause in the contract of carriage. In the event of any claim b

4、y carriers under the said Clause, the Assured agree to notify the Insurers who shall have the right, at their own cost and expense, to defend the Assured against such claim. (本条文的详细介绍请看以下第4段)Forwarding Charges12. Where, as a result of the operation of a risk covered by this insurance, the insured tr

5、ansit is terminated at a port or place other than that to which the subject-matter insured is covered under this insurance, the Insurers will reimburse the Assured for any extra charges properly and reasonably incurred in unloading storing and forwarding the subject-matter insured to the destination

6、 to which it is insured. This Clause 12, which does not apply to general average or salvage charges, shall be subject to the exclusions contained in Clauses 4, 5, 6 and 7 above, and shall not include charges arising from the fault negligence insolvency or financial default of the Assured or their em

7、ployees. (本条文的详细介绍请看以下第5段)”。2 共同海损 （General Average）2.1 背景介绍与英国海上保险法的定义共同海损的历史非常悠久，比海上保险的历史悠久的多，而这两种制度之间没有必然的关系，只是船东与货方在海上保险都会去投保产生共同海损的风险，所以造成了两者之间在操作上关系是十分密切。共同海损的整个理念来自公平对待所有在同一航程中“同舟共济”的利益方，包括船东与货方（可能有不同的货物属于不同的货方）。要知道在古代，航海是十分冒险的事情，其中由于定位困难以及没有准确的海图，像搁浅这种海难是非常容易发生。如果发生这种海难并当场造成了损坏，例如船壳破了个洞或掉了个锚

8、，这是船东自己的损失（可称为是“单独海损”particular average），算他运气不好，其他没有造成损坏的货物没有义务去分摊这笔损失。但如果搁浅后去怎么样摆脱这个困局就会有几种不同的方法可供选择，一个就是把船上的部分货物抛入海中以让船舶减轻重量去浮起，也有可能是把船舶的部分设备抛入海中以达到同样的目的。一两百年前船舶从帆船变了是机动，还会有多一个选择，就是硬倒车把船舶倒回深水部分，但这样做会造成船底更大的损坏，也会让主机有更大的损耗。还有的选择会是雇佣一艘大马力的拖轮把船舶拖去深水，或是安排海上船靠船的货物转运以让搁浅的船舶减载，等等。一有了选择，就会涉及牺牲哪一方的利益，毕竟最后能够

9、摆脱困境，脱离危险甚至能够完成航次是对大家都有好处。所以就有了共同海损的做法，就是不管谁的利益被牺牲，或是船东支付了费用（比如是雇佣拖轮），这是被称为共同海损牺牲（general average sacrifice）或共同海损费用(general average expense)，最终大家需要根据航次完毕后的实际价值（船舶或货物）的比例去分摊。希望有了这样的解释就很容易明白1906年英国海上保险法Section 66，对共同海损的定义以及与海上保险的关系，其中笔者去节录以下部分的段节：“66. General average loss (1) A general average loss is

10、 a loss caused by or directly consequential on a general average act. It includes a general average expenditure as well as a general average sacrifice. (2) There is a general average act where any extraordinary sacrifice or expenditure is voluntarily and reasonably made or incurred in time of peril

11、for the purpose of preserving the property imperiled in the common adventure. (3) Where there is a general average loss, the party on whom it falls is entitled, subject to the conditions imposed by maritime law, to a rateable contribution from the other parties interested, and such contribution is c

12、alled a general average contribution. (4) Subject to any express provision in the policy, where the assured has incurred a general average expenditure, he may recover from the insurer in respect of the proportion of the loss which falls upon him; and, in the case of a general average sacrifice, he m

13、ay recover from the insurer in respect of the whole loss without having enforced his right of contribution from the other parties liable to contribute. (5) Subject to any express provision in the policy, where the assured has paid, or is liable to pay, a general average contribution in respect of th

14、e subject insured, he may recover therefore from the insurer.”在很多有关共同海损的先例中举一个就是Boag v. Standard Marine Insurance Company Ltd. (1937) 57 Lloyds Rep. .83，案情涉及一艘船舶搁浅后把部分的货物抛进了海里，让船舶最后能够浮起来。结果在分摊计算后，抛下海的货物能够从其他利益方大概取回50%的利益价值。也可以说，即使是没有做出牺牲的货方与船东，实际上也去做出了这50%的分摊或承受50%的损失。2.2共同海损的要素总结说，共同海损有以下的要素：(一)“特殊

15、的牺牲或费用”（extraordinary sacrifice or expenditure）(二)“自愿”（voluntarily），这也代表是有一定的选择性。(三) 合理去做出牺牲或花费(四)“当时有危险”（in time of peril） (五) 该危险不是由要求分摊共同海损一方自己的过错或疏忽所导致，否则其他的利益方向他索赔损失还来不及，怎么轮到他要求其他利益方分摊损失。(六) “为去保障财产”(for the purpose of preserving the property) (七) “船货共同风险”（common adventure）有关这一个课题在笔者海事法的第六章有详细介

16、绍，不去重复。2.3 共同海损分摊的法律2.3.1 共同海损是在卸港宣告与理算共同海损的分摊是在货物安全到了卸港的时候才去提出：Chellew v. Royal Commission on the Sugar Supply (1922) 1 KB 12。 这也是现实，因为在中途避难港（port of refuge）作出了共同海损牺牲或者费用，如果马上要求获救的利益方去分摊根本是不现实。例如船东根本不会知道货方最终是谁，因为提单还可能正在流转，也不会有货方到中途港前来提货。这表示船舶离开避难港后，还需要继续去卸港然后才能去向货方提出或宣告共同海损。还有一个现实的考虑就是稍后会讲到的船东会强制货方

17、为共同海损分摊提供担保，在普通法下，船东对货物是有留置权（lien）。显然船舶也只有在到了最终的卸港货方来要求提货时船东才可以行使留置权。这在约克-安特卫普规则（York-Antwerp Rules）2004年版本也有说明如下：“(1) General average shall be adjusted as regards both loss or contribution upon the basis of values at the time and place when and where the adventure ends”。而在英国普通法，Cockburn大法官早在先例Mavro

18、 v. Ocean Marine Insurance Co. (1875) LR 10 CP 414中说：“The adjustment must be made at the port of destination, if it be reached, but if the voyage is interrupted by some supervening cause, which necessitates or justifies its termination at some intermediate place, that place is the proper place of ad

19、justment.”。到底航次是将哪里作为目的地需要看船东与货方的协议，这主要就是租约或提单了。当然在订约自由下，他们是完全可以再做出改变，例如把目的地卸港改为中途避难港。如果在原来的租约中是有几个卸港，这也不影响在航次完结后一次过做出共同海损的理算。只是在最早卸港卸下的货物不在余下的航次有共同利益，所以在余下的航次如果遇到共同海损的事故，已经卸下的货物是不会去分摊。它需要分摊的只是之前的共同海损牺牲/费用。2.3.2 对中途花费的共同海损费用作出投保这种做法就可能带来很很多细致的问题，例如船舶如果从避难港离开后中途沉没，那岂非船东在避难港所花费的费用就拿不回来了，正如先例Chellew v.

20、 Royal Commission on the Sugar Supply (1922) 1 KB 12。所以如果船东做出了共同海损的花费，由于船舶还没有安全抵达目的地的卸港，就需要去为这笔钱投保名为“General Average Disbursement Insurance”的保险。而这笔保费也算是共同海损费用的一部分，可以一并加入投保金额与事后分摊：这方面在约克-安特卫普规则2004Rule XX (b)中是说：“The cost of insuring average disbursements shall also be allowed in general average”。这一来

21、，如果航次顺利完成就在卸港做出分摊。但如果不能完成，就是船舶遇上另一个新风险导致船货全损或货物受到损坏而导致货价大跌（这表示由于实际价值大跌会导致货方的分摊相应减少），船东就向保险人取回这笔较早时花费的共同海损费用。伦敦保险市场也有这种保险的标准条文，名为Average Disbursement Clauses，它所承保的标的是在第4条有说明，如下：“This insurance is in respect of general average disbursements and salvage and salvage charges inclusive of costs.”。而承保的风险就是

22、在第6.1条，如下：“this insurance covers extinction or reduction of the contributory value of the property and freight at risk”。2.3.3 共同海损理算的适用法由于理算与分摊共同海损是在卸港，所以共同海损的适用法与管辖权也是理所当然是属于卸港的法律与法院。虽然绝大部分的海事国家包括中国都有它们自己的法律针对共同海损的原则与理算方法，但它们之间在细节方面有很大的差异。所以为了统一做法，国际海事组织（Comite Maritime International 或简称CMI）很早就已经拟定

23、了约克-安特卫普规则（York-Antwerp Rules）给国际航运界使用。但不像国际海事组织另一项重要的成果就是1924年的海牙规则（Hague Rules），约克-安特卫普规则并没有被提升成为国际公约或被有关的国家立法，而一直是民间的一套规则。所以它要能够去约束有关当事人，是必须把有关的海上运输合约规定船东与货方之间的共同海损必须是以约克-安特卫普规则作为理算方法，也就是通过订约自由与合约法来约束大家。经过多个版本的修改，最新的是2004年的版本。可以说在今天能够见得到的提单/海运单格式或租约格式都有这样的一条类似的条文将约克-安特卫普规则合并进来，例如是Congenbill 1994的

24、散装货租约提单格式的第14条说：“General Average shall be adjusted, stated and settled in London according to the York Antwerp Rules 1994, or any modification thereof, in respect of all cargo, whether carried on or under deck”。在海上保险合约，虽然是承保共同海损的分摊，但为了避免保险人会面对一些不可以接受的共同海损法律或者规定而要去承担不合理的分摊，所以会规定了共同海损的理算必须是以航次完结的时候目的地

25、港的有关法律与做法为准，或根据约克-安特卫普规则。这可去举2003年国际船壳保险条文，承保船壳险，它的8.2条是“General average shall be adjusted according to the law and practice obtaining at the place where the adventure ends, as if the contract of affreightment so provides the adjustment shall be according to the York-Antwerp Rules.”。在协会货物条文（A）（B）（C）

26、的第2条对承保共同海损的分摊规定的比船舶保险宽松只是说：“adjusted or determined according to the contract of carriage and/or the governing law and practice”，并没有强制要求分摊共同海损的理算是必须要根据约克-安特卫普规则。估计是因为在现实中，海上运输合约的拟定货方通常是没有办法抗拒，特别是在班轮运输。所以如果有一家中国的船公司签发的提单规定了是要根据北京共同海损理算规则在北京理算，但有关的航次不是美国去中国，而是中国去美国。这一来，共同海损的理算既不是根据美国卸港的法律，也不是根据约克-安特卫普

27、规则，两者（北京的理算与约克-安特卫普规则的理算）之间的理算有差别就会带来争议。所以为了更好的保障没有谈判力量的货方，协会货物条文不去要求必须要以约克-安特卫普规则理算，这与船壳保险不一样。2.4 共同海损分摊的实际做法船舶安全抵达卸港，收货人前来提货，船东就可以要求其分摊共同海损。事实上在共同海损事故发生后，船东就会很快委任专业的海损理算师进行理算。但问题是理算要涉及很多的事实认定以及取得有关证据，例如船舶与货物在卸港的实际价值是多少。所以，整个理算过程是非常漫长而且复杂，1/2年是很常见。这就带来一个问题，就是当货方在卸货港要求提货时，共同海损的理算可以说是刚起步，根本没有一个依据可以去向

28、货方（或是他背后承保的保险人）要求分摊。这变了在卸港有好几件重要的事情要作，如下：2.4.1 共同海损契约（General Average Bond）这就是要求货方去签署这份契约，内容是货方同意将来会按照海损理算师的理算结果去进行支付，以下可去节录劳合社的一份标准契约：“Lloyds Average BondTo (船东名字)Owner(s) of the (船舶名字)Voyage and date (航次与日期) Port of shipment (装港) Port of destination/discharge (卸港) Bill of lading or waybill number(

29、s) (提单号)Quantity and description of goods (货物数量与规格)： In consideration of the delivery to us or to our order, on payment of the freight due, of the goods noted above we agree to pay the proper proportion of any salvage and/or general average and/or special charges which may hereafter be ascertained t

30、o be due from the goods or the shippers or owners thereof under an adjustment prepared in accordance with the provisions of the contract of affreightment governing the carriage of the goods or, failing such provisions, in accordance with the law and practice of the place where the common maritime ad

31、venture ended and which is payable in respect of the goods by the shippers or owners thereof.We also agree to:(i) furnish particulars of the value of the goods, supported by a copy of the commercial invoice rendered to us, or, if there is no such invoice, details of the shipped value and(ii) make a

32、payment on account of such sum as is duly certified by the average adjusters to be due from the goods and which is payable in respect of the goods by the shippers or owners thereof.Date Signature of receiver of goodsFull name and address”。要货方去签这一个契约除了要去取得有关货方的资料以方便以后联系外，在约束货方要去分摊共同海损本来就可能会有法律的约束。第一个

33、就是根据卸港的有关法律，就已经支持了船东去向货方提出共同海损分摊的要求。除了这一个法律默示地位外，多数提单或其他海上运输合约还会去明确规定货方有责任去分摊共同海损。所以这一个契约会只是重复这一方面的责任，特别是签这份契约的收货人并不是原来的发货人或者承租人，他甚至会是银行。2.4.2 共同海损担保 （General Average Guarantee）光是有了共同海损契约与货方将来同意共同海损的理算与分摊，这绝对是不足够，因为世界上赖皮的人太多与光棍也不少。所以另一个必须要有的就是货方提供财务的担保。由于还没有理算准确的分摊金额是不会有，但去作出一个保守与稍微偏高的分摊金额还是可以做到，就可以

34、以这个数字要求货方提供共同海损分摊的担保。由于大部分的货物都是有投保海上运输风险，而协会货物条文也明确是承保共同海损。所以不少情况下共同海损担保是有保险人或保险公司去作出。在大部分的情况下，这些保险人或保险公司都是有头有脸的（例如香港与世界其他地方要成立保险公司都必须满足法定的资本要求与受到监管，不应该有太多的光棍公司），所以可以被船东接受。伦敦海上保险市场也是有这种标准格式，如下：“Average GuaranteeTo: the Owners of the vessel named below and other parties to the adventure as their inte

35、rests may appear.VESSEL fromtoCASUALTY and DATEIn consideration of the delivery in due course of the goods specified below to the consignees thereof without collection of a deposit, we, the undersigned insurers, hereby undertake to pay to the shipowners or to the Average Adjusters*, on behalf of the

36、 various parties to the adventure as their interest may appear, any contribution to General Average and/or Salvage and/or Special Charges which may hereafter be ascertained to be properly due in respect of the said goods.We further agree:(a) to make prompt payment(s) on account of such contribution

37、as may be reasonably and properly due in respect of the said goods, as soon as the same may be certified by the Average Adjusters(b) to furnish to the said Average Adjusters at their request all information which is available to us relative to the value and condition of the said goodsPort of Loading

38、: (装港)Port of Discharge: (卸港)Bill of Lading: (提单编号)Quantity & description of goods: (货物数量与规格)Insured Value: (投保金额)Policy/Ref No. and Premium (if known): (保单编号与保费)Signature of Insurers (保险人签名)Name and Address (保险人名字与地址)Telephone NoFax NoEmailDate-*The Average Adjusters are: (共同海损理算师名字与地址)”。2.4.3 共同海损

39、押金（General Average Deposit）会有情况是货方没有投保（特别是在班轮运输中少量的一批货或是私人物品有可能发生），这就会要求货方去以现金作为押金。这个押金会存放在一个专门开设的船东与货方（可以是他们的代表例如是海损理算师）的联名帐户里。而有关的标准格式也可以去节录如下：“General Average Deposit ReceiptLloyds Form No. Dated atVesselfromtoNature and date of accident.RECEIVED from MessrsThe sum of (in words)Deposit on account

40、 of General Average and/or Salvage and/or Charges, beingpercent onprovisionally adopted as the contributory value of the following goods, viz:B/L or Waybill NoPounds Signed For and on behalf of the Trustee(s) or nominated representativeNOTESFor Depositors: If insured you may wish to send this receip

41、t together with the original policy or certificate of insurance to your insurers who, subject to the policy conditions, may be prepared to refund this deposit. If not insured you should notify the Average Adjusters direct of your interest and retain this receipt until the adjustment is issued when a

42、ny credit balance can be claimed.For Insurers: When a repayment of this deposit has been made, advise the Average Adjusters and thus assist in final settlement.NO DUPLICATE OF THIS RECEIPT CAN BE ISSUED.N.B. The refund, if any, will only be made to the bearer of, and in exchange for, this Receipt, a

43、nd will be the whole balance of the deposit after satisfying the General Average and/or Salvage and/or Charges, without deduction or set off of any other claims of the Shipowner against the Shipper or Consignee.The General Average will be adjusted in and the Shipowners have given the necessary instr

44、uction to MessrsAverage Adjusters.-General Average Deposit Receipt (Lloyds Form)-CounterfoilDated atVesselDepositorsDescription of goodsB/L or Waybill NoContributory value (provisional)Amount of deposit”。这种做法在约克-安特卫普规则，1974，1994与2004年版本都有同样的针对，是Rule XXII，如下：“Where cash deposits have been collected i

45、n respect of cargos liability for general average, salvage or special charges, such deposits shall be paid without any delay into a special account in the joint names of a representative nominated on behalf of the shipowner and a representative nominated on behalf of the depositors in a bank to be a

46、pproved by both. The sum so deposited, together with accrued interest, if any, shall be held as security for payment to the parties entitled thereto of the general average, salvage or special charges payable by cargo in respect to which the deposits have been collected. Payments on account of refund

47、s of deposits may be made if certified to in writing by the average adjuster. Such deposits and payments or refunds shall be without prejudice to the ultimate liability of the parties.”。2.4.4 共同海损的留置权（Lien）上述的船东要求显然必须要有法律依据去作出强制执行，否则是很难会可以逼货方提供担保或是押金。笔者很久以前在海损理算公司工作过，还清楚记得多年前的一件事，香港一个很小的货方拿了一把刀冲进海损理

48、算师的办公室说：“我已经交了运费，为什么还要交什么共同海损分摊的押金，我听不明白，赶快给我放货!”。这一个法律依据就是在英国普通法（也是许多其他地方的法律，如美国与香港）是非常罕有的给船东一个普通法下的留置权：Simonds v. White (1824) 2 B.&c. 805；Huth v. Lamport (1886) 16 QBD 735。这表示是不像滞期费或亏舱费这种只能靠合约赋予留置的权利，船东根本不需要在提单或其他海上运输合约中加入对共同海损分摊的留置权条文。有关行使留置权，船东是必须通知货方他所要求的金额与足够的资料去支持这一个金额的计算，这是货方自己可以做出计算。如果货方愿意

49、支付一笔合理的钱或是提供合理金额的担保，但船东还是拒绝放货，这在法律上是构成对货物的侵占（conversion of cargo）：Anderson Tritton & Co. v. Ocean Steamship Co. (1884) 10 App Cas 107，Huth v. Lamport (1886) 16 QBD 735（有关侵占的问题在本书第十四章11.3段有详论）。货方也可以向卸港的法院求助，法院会在货方把船东要求的金额存放在法院作为交换法院去命令船东必须马上放货。船东不能对共同海损分摊索取的金额或是担保去狮子大开口，并且必须是有根有据，还可以去节录Scrutton大法官在Al

50、bemarle Supply Co. Ltd. v. Hind & Co. (1928) 1 K.B. 307有以下权威说法：“A person claiming a lien must either claim it for a definite amount or give the owner particulars from which he himself can calculate the amount for which the lien is due. The owner must then, in the absence of express agreement, tender

51、 an amount covering the lien really existing. If he does not, unless excused, he has no answer to a claim of lien. He may be excused from tendering (1) if he has no knowledge or means of knowledge of the right amount; (2) if the person claiming the lien for a wrong cause or amount makes it clear tha

52、t he will not release the goods unless his full claim is satisfied, and that claim is wrongful. The fact that the claim is made for more than the right amount does not matter unless the claimant give no particulars from which the right amount can be calculated, or makes it clear that he insists on t

53、he full amount of the right claimed.”。另去节录的是Rose教授2005年General Average Law and Practice第二版中 97页也有提到如下：“He 指船长 must not demand an unreasonable security, which, if given, will not be upheld, e.g., if it makes the shipowners adjuster an arbitrator, favors the shipowner in an appeal from an arbitrator,

54、requires cash deposits to be in the joint names of shipowner and arbitrator, or entitles the shipowner to draw on such deposits without the depositors consent, possibly in full and so beyond the amount for which the depositor is ultimately found to be liable: Huth v. Lamport 1886 16 QBD 735. See als

55、o Brandeis, Goldschmidt & Co. v. Economic Insurance Co. Ltd. 1922 11 Lloyds Rep. 42 (in which insurers refused an indemnity for a cash deposit paid to a representative of the shipowner without security); Salvage Association v. Suzuke & Co. Ltd. 1929 35 Lloyds Rep. 45.”。2.4.5 在中途港放货的情况会有不少情况是在中途的避难港就

56、会放货，这就会导致在中途港已经要处理共同海损分摊的问题，因为已经发生了共同海损的牺牲或费用。例如是：（一）船舶的损坏再也没办法继续航程去目的地卸港，货方必须在中途港取回货物并自己安排续运到目的地港，这也就是本章第5段介绍的续运费用。这一来，就代表航次的风险到此已经终止（adventure is terminated）。（二）货方自己另有安排，例如把该票货物在中途港处理掉，再也不必去卸货目的地。至于为什么这样做，可以是货方自己有各种商业理由，他本来中途就准备改变卸货港或者是中途港的市场价格恰好比原来卸货港的高。也可能货物是应季，续运去原来卸货港已经是为时已晚，而正好在卸货港可以及时转售等等。这一

57、来，正常情况下，船东没理由阻止货方在中途港取回他的货物而坚持将货物运往原来的卸货港。所以货方与船东会不难去达成协议，让货物在中途港卸下。船东应该要求的就是让货方去出示全套的正本提单以及肯定运费已经支付掉（一般在CIF与CFR买卖中都不是问题，因为通常都是运费预付提单）。对这些货物而言，再也不会共同去目的地港（no common adventure）,也代表航次的风险到此已经终止（adventure is terminated）。在这里一提的是根据美国与加拿大的法律，货方是有法定权利要求船东在中途避难港交出货物，这方面的问题会在不可分割协议与Bigham条文再进一步解释（本章之2.4.6段有介绍）。（三）货物还是要按计划续运去目的地的卸货港，但由于在避难港口需要对船舶进行修理（通常是暂时修理）才能续运，而修理是船底或船舵等的水下部分，需要把部分甚至是全部的货物去卸下才能进干坞或进行修理。但由于把这些货物卸下在避难港储存，仓储费用很贵，而且在船舶修理好之后再将该货物