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1、任何学科的形成和发展,都与当时的科学技术水平。经济建设要求以及相关学科的促进分不开的。早期的药物化学以化学学科为主导,包括天然和合成药物的性质、制备方法和质量检测等内容。随着科技发展,天然药物化学、合成药物化学和药物分析等学科相继建立。现代药物化学是化学和生物学科相互渗透的综合性学科。主要任务是创制新药、发现具有进一步研究开发前景的先导物。 研究内容主要有:基于生命科学研究揭示的药物作用靶点(受体、酶、离子通道、核酸等),参考天然配体或底物的结构特征。设计药物新分子,以期发现选择性地作用于耙点的新药;通过各种途径和技术寻找先导物,如内源性活性物质的发掘,天然有效成分或现有药物的结构改造和优化,
2、活性代谢物的发现等,其次计算机在药物研究中的应用日益广泛,计算机辅助药物设计(CADD)和构效关系也是药物化学的研究内容。如今信息科学迅猛发展,利用各种数据库和信息技术,比如Reaxys,可广泛收集药物化学的文献资料,有利于扩展思路,开拓视野,丰富药物化学的内容。 药物化学既要研究化学药物的结构、性质和变化规律,又要了解药物用于人体的生理生化效应和毒副反应以及构效关系才能完成它的任务。有人比喻,如果现代 药物化学是一只鼎,那么支撑这只鼎的分别是化学、生物学科和计算机技术。创制新药是涉及多学科。多环节的探索性系统工程。是集体研究的成果,基于药物化学首先要发现先导物,为后续学科研究提供物质基础,在
3、研究过程中起着十分重要的作用,因此药物化学在药学科学领域处于带头学科的地位。Burger的名著药物化学现已改为(药物化学与药物发现)(Medicinal Chemistry and Drug Discovery),以突出药物化学的任务是创制新药和发现先导物,从而达到促进医药工业发展,保护人类健康的目的。 80年代初诺氟沙星用于临床后医学教|育网搜集整理,迅速掀起喹诺酮类抗菌药的研究热潮,相继合成了一系列抗菌药物,这类抗菌药和一些新抗生素的问世,认为是合成抗菌药发展史上的重要里程碑。 发现许多活性多肽和细胞因子。如心钠素(ANF)是80年代初从鼠心肌匀浆分离出的心房肽,具有很强的利尿、降压和调节
4、心律的作用,内皮舒张因子(EDRF)NO是同时期证实由内皮细胞分泌具有舒张血管作用的物质,其化学本质后证实是一氧化氮(Ho)。它是调节心血管系统、神经系统和免疫系统功能的细胞信使分子,参与机体的多种生理作用,90年代后,有关NO的研究已成国际的热点。NO供体和NO合酶抑制剂的研究正方兴未艾。将为心血管抗炎药等开拓新的领域。 90年代初以来上市的新药中。生物技术产品占有较大的比例,并有迅速上升的趋势。通过生物技术改造传统制药产业可提高经济效益。利用转基因动物,乳腺生物反应器研制、生产药品。将是21世纪生物技术领域研究的热点之一。 发展的组合化学技术,能合成数量众多的结相关的化合物,建立有序变化的
5、多样性分子库,进行集约快构速筛选,这种大量合成和高通量筛选,无疑对发现先导化合物和提高新药研究水平都具有重要意义。70-90年代,新理论,新技术、学科间交叉淮透形成的新兴学科,都促进了药物化学的发展,认为是药物化学承前启后,继往开来的关键时代。 本世纪中、后期药物化学的进展和大量新药上市,归纳为三方面主要原因:(l)生命科学,如结构生物学、分子生物学、分子遗传学、基因学和生物技术的进展,为发现新药提供理论依据和技术支撑。(2)信息科学的突飞猛进,如生物信息学的建立,生物芯片的研制,各种信息效据库和信息技术的应用,可便捷地检索和搜寻所需安的文献资料,研究水平和效率大为提高,制药企业为了争取国际市
6、场,投入大且资金用于新药研究和开发(R&D),新药品种不断增加,促进了医药工业快速发展。 不久我们将迎来知识经济的新世纪。知识创新,技术创新,促进科技进步和经济发展将是面临的主要任务。生命科学和信息科学将日益得到发展。成为下世纪的活跃领域,这为防病治病,新药研究提供重要的基础。药物化学与生物学科、生物技术紧密结合,相互促进,仍是今后发展的大趋势。Polygonayum Cyrtonema Lectin:Targeting Apoptotic and Autophagic Pathways as a
7、;Potential Anti-tumor Drug Abstract:Polygonayum cyrtonema lectin(PCL), a mannose/sialic acid-binding lectin, has been reported to induce cancer cell death via several apoptotic and aut
8、ophagic signaling pathways.In this review, the recent findings on this subject is to be involved,including mechanism,relationship and perspective of Polygonayum Cyrtonema Lectin targeting
9、60;apoptotic and autophagic pathways as potential anti-tumor drug in cancer therapeutics.Key words: Polygonayum Cyrtonema Lectin, Apoptosis, Autophagy, Anti-tumor. Cancer is considered a
10、60;major public health problem not only in the United States (US) but also in many parts of the world. In the US, one of four human deaths is associated wi
11、th cancer 1. Moreover, it is also the leading cause of death in the population <85 years of age . As expected,the survival rate of patients suffering from ca
12、ncer is dependent on the stage on which the cancer is diagnosed.In general, a 5-year survival rate of at least 90% is associated with initial stages of cancer w
13、here metastasis is not involved, and the survival rate decreases to approximately 8% at later stages of the disease where tumor invasion of other organs and regional
14、;lymph nodes and distant metastases are involved 2-4. As such, metastasis of tumors from their primary origin is difficult to manage and results in a very poor progn
15、osis of the patient. It is, therefore, important to search for naturally occurring components or products that can mediate the process of metastasis and angiogenesis. Pl
16、ant lectins are a class of carbohydrate-binding non-immune origin proteins ubiquitously distributed in a variety of plant species 5,6. They can specifically recognize and bind
17、;to various sugar structures, and thus trigger several important cellular processes 7,8. In the past few years, hundreds of plant lectins have been purified and characterized&
18、#160;in details with respect to their biochemical properties, carbohydrate-binding specificities and biological functions 9-11. According to the overall structures of the mature plant l
19、ectins, they can be divided into subdivisions of "merolectins", "hololectins", "chimerolectins", and"superlectins"12. Besidesplant lectins have also been classified accor
20、ding to their sugar-binding specificities into polyspecific or monospecific, which can interact with one or more sugars such as galactose, mannose, mannose-containing glycans, glucose
21、160;and so on13,14. In the last two decades, plant lectins have been used as recognizing tools to differentiate malignant tumours from benign and the degree of glycosylat
22、ion associated with metastasis 15. Meanwhile, several lectins such as mistletoe lectins have been adopted for alternative cancer therapy 16. And, they are indicated for
23、the reduction of treatment-associated side-effects as adjuvant agents during chemotherapy and radiotherapy in Europe for several years 17. Recently, many studies have further presented&
24、#160;the anti-tumour activities of plant lectins on a variety of malignant cells 18,19. Several typical lectins such as MLs 20, Ricin 21,22 and WGA 23,24 have been r
25、eported to possess remarkable anti-tumour activities by inducing apoptosis in cancer cells. Besides, other lectins such as ConA and PCL can induce autophagy after internalization
26、160;into tumour cells 25-28. Accordingly, these updated data of the anti-tumour activity of plant lectins and their molecular mechanisms should be discussed herein. In addition,
27、60;the recent advances of preclinical and clinical studies of plant lectins would be further elucidated as potential antineoplastic drugs in future cancer therapeutics. Apoptosis,
28、type I programmed cell death (PCD), is characterized by condensation of the cytoplasm and nucleus ,DNA fragmentation , chromatin merging in the nuclear periphery , cell c
29、ontraction, dynamic membrane blebbing,and phagocytosis 29. And, apoptosis is known as one of the most important molecular mechanisms that can be regulated by numerous cellular
30、;signaling pathways for tumour cell suicide 30,31. Of note, cancer is closely associated with programmed cell death (PCD) or apoptosis, which is an evolutionary conserved proc
31、ess that plays a crucial role in metazoan development 32. Therefore, if the molecules or pathways of apoptosis required to suppress the tumorigenesis are identied, apoptosis
32、160;modulation can emerge as a new target for cancer therapy 33. When considering other strategies that could affect the cancer components of the apoptotic pathway, we fo
33、und that modulating the key molecular components of cell death machinery is an attractive strategy for plant lectins34. Apoptosis, also known as programmed cell death, is
34、;characterized by a series of morphological cell changes 35which includes loss of specialized surface structure, reduction in volume, conservation of cytoplasmic organelles, condensation
35、0;of nuclear chromatin, and phagocytosis36,37. Apoptosis can occur via two distinct signaling pathways, the intrinsic and the extrinsic. The intrinsic pathway targets the mitochondrial&
36、#160;membrane in response to stresses like lack of growth factors and DNA injury 38,while the extrinsic pathway is associated with binding of apoptosis-inducing ligands to cel
37、l surface receptors such as Fas-associated death receptor, tumor necrosis factor-(TNF-) receptor, and TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand receptors 39. The ability to escape apoptosis
38、;is one of the hallmarks of cancer cells 40 and can lead to tumor progression. Autophagy, a cellular process responding to stress, has been widely studied for decade
39、s but has received tremendous interests in recent years. When cells undergo stress conditions, such as nutrient limitation, heat, oxidative stress, and/or the accumulation of
40、damaged or excess organelles and abnormal cellular components, autophagy is induced as a degradative pathway; the elimination of potentially toxic components coupled with the recyc
41、ling of nutrients aids in cell survival 41. Three general types of autophagic processes have been identied in eukaryotic cells, named macroautophagy, microautophagy and chaperone-m
42、ediated autophagy 42. Autophagy is not only a survival response to either growth factor or nutrient deprivation but an importantmechanismfor tumour cell suicide43. Besides, recent&
43、#160;studies have reported that the co-regulation of both apoptosis and autophagy can participate in mammalian cell death 44,45. Other reports have further pointed out that ap
44、optosis and autophagy may be interconnected and even simultaneously regulated by the same trigger 46. Intriguingly, these aforementioned phenomena were also found in lectin-induced cell
45、 death in some recent investigations 25,27,28. PCL, isolated from Phaseolus coccineus seeds showed anticancer potential that was sialic acid-specific.Chen et al. 47 reported that
46、160;PCL showed potent antiproliferative effect towards L929 cells involving both apoptosis and necrosis. The cytotoxic effect of PCL was attributed to the activation of caspases,
47、160;as addition of caspase inhibitors abrogated the antiproliferative effect of PCL. P. cyrtonema lectin (PCL) was reported to induce autophagy in human melanoma A375 cells, e
48、videnced by ultrastructural changes of autophagic death, LC3-II/LC3-I proportion and the increase of Beclin1 level. PCL-induced autophagy was also mediated by mitochondria and played
49、60;the same death-promoting role in A375 cells. Besides that, a ROS-mediated p38p53 pathway was further confirmed to involve in PCL-induced autophagy. Therefore, PCL induces both a
50、poptosis and autophagy through a mitochondrial-mediated ROS-p38p53 pathway 26,28. Under some circumstances, apoptosis and autophagy seem to be interconnected positively or negatively, referr
51、ing to the "molecular switch" between them 48. Undoubtedly, there are multiple connections between apoptotic and autophagic processes that can jointly seal the fate of
52、60;cancer cells 49. Based upon the above-mentioned points, lectin-induced apoptosis and autophagy connect with each other to participate in inducing cancer cell death via a mi
53、tochondria-mediated pathway, which is governed by the nature of the death stimulus. Additionally, the regulation of tumour cell death may be considered as a "dynamic bala
54、nce" between apoptosis and autophagy 50. There is a complex, and not fully dened relationship between apoptosis and autophagy that may vary depending on their biological&
55、#160;context 51. The apoptotic and autophagic pathways are regulated by some common factors; they share common components; they can exert overlapping even same biological functions;
56、0;and autophagic pathway might regulate and promote the activity of apoptosis. More importantly, these discoveries would open a novel area of exploration for plant lectins in&
57、#160;cancer investigations. Furthermore, many legume lectins, which belong to the most extensively studied plant lectin family, have been reported to possess remarkable antiproliferative
58、0;activity and/or apoptosis-inducing effect on the growth of cancer cells52-54.However, few studies of the monocot mannose-binding lectins have been reported for their anti-tumor activi
59、ty and apoptosis53. Although a few of studies have suggested a strong correlation between certain lectin-binding patterns and their biological behavior in various tumors 55, i
60、t has remained to be clarified in the studies of monocot mannose-binding lectins. Lectins are carbohydrate-binding proteins that bind carbohydrates reversibly and possess the abili
61、ty to agglutinate cells or precipitate polysaccharides and glycoconjugates. They are widely distributed in animals, plants and microorganisms 56,57 and have attracted great interest
62、0;due to their various biological activities,such as cell agglutination58,anti-tumor59, immunomodulato- ry 60, antifungal 61, antiviral 62 and anti-insect activities 63. It has been rep
63、orted that a great number of lectins (e.g., mistletoe lectin, Concanavalin A (ConA), and Polygonatum cyrtonema lectin can induce apoptosis of tumor cells) 64-66. Therefore, pl
64、ant lectins have already been adopted for alternative tumor therapy in Europe for several years 67.Autophagy refers to an evolutionarily conserved catabolic process in which a
65、 cell degrades long-lived proteins and damaged organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and mitochondria. Autophagy serves as a critical adaptive response to
66、 starvation (amino acid and nutrient deprivaion) and metabolic stress by recycling energy and nutrient. Autophagy is a multi-step process highly regulated by a number of
67、the conserved autophagy-related genes (ATGs). Originally discovered in yeast, ATG genes were reported to play vital roles in autophagosome formation and autophagy regulation, and h
68、ave been known to be associated with several important pathological process such as cancer initiation and progression68. Numerous links between autophagy and cancer have emerged
69、60;and appeared to be multifaceted. Under some circumstances, autophagy can function as a tumor suppressor via eliminating damaged cells. On the another hand, the cytoprotective
70、60;role of autophagy can indirectly protect cells from carcinogenesis by maintaining genomic stability and homeostasis69. Paradoxically, the cytoprotective effects of autophagy may contribut
71、e to tumor development under stress. Recent studies have indicated that autophagy can play a key role in tumor cell resistance to chemotherapy, and inhibition of autophag
72、y can enhance the cytotoxicity of certain chemotherapeutic agents70,71. All these studies unveil an intricate relationship between autophagy and cancer. Hitherto, the underlying m
73、olecular mechanisms of autophagy regulation have remained to be elucidated; however, several novel emerging strategies are being used to target autophagic signaling pathways for dr
74、ug discovery in cancer treatment. Autophagy-related genes (ATGs) play the key roles in the formation of the autophagosome and the regulation of autophagy, which are closely
75、60;linked to cancer initiation and progression. Silencing several essential modulators of the autophagic machinery such as Atg3, Atg4b, Atg4c, Bec-1/Atg6, Atg10, and Atg12 have bee
76、n shown to sensitize cancer cells to a wide spectrum of stress conditions72,73. Accordingly, this strategy may be a useful approach for targeting protective autophagy in
77、cancer therapeutics. Targeting selected protein kinases involved in the regulation of autophagy using small molecule inhibitors may be another feasible approach in cancer therapy.
78、Recently, a number of protein kinases have been known to regulate the induction of autophagy following nutrient deprivation or other cellular stresses; thus, only the followin
79、g protein kinases have been reported to induce protective autophagy in response to cytotoxic agents in cancer cells, eg, AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), glycogen synthase
80、;kinase 3 (GSK3) beta, extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) and eukaryotic elongation factor-2 kinase (eEF2K). On the other hand, other protein kinases are
81、 involved in the promotion of autophagy, but not yet evaluated as the potential therapeutic targets, including death-associated protein kinase (DAPK) and Unc51-like kinase 1 (
82、ULK-1)73. While further studies should be necessary to evaluate the precise functions of the protein kinases, these selected protein kinases would represent potentially promising t
83、argets for cancer therapeutics. Autophagy is not only a survival response to either growth factor or nutrient deprivation, but also an important mechanism for tumor cell
84、suicide74. Recently, the increasing data have accumulated to signify autophagy as a mechanism of type II programmed cell death (PCD), and present new perspectives for developi
85、ng alternative anti-cancer therapies75. Thus, several autophagy-inducing agents are already being used in the treatment of different human cancers, and would be further explored fr
86、om bench to clinic. Recently, imatinib (gleevac) has been found to induce autophagy in multi-drug-resistant Kaposi's sarcoma cells as part of its mode of action and a
87、lso be effective in the treatment of glioblastomas76. Moreover, histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDAC), such as suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA), have also been reported to in
88、duce autophagy in Hela cells and is independent of caspase activation and apoptosis. Thus, initiation of autophagic cell death by SAHA has clear therapeutic implications for
89、160;apoptosis-defective tumors. Furthermore, it is well-known that mTOR is a major regulator of cell growth that has beenimplicated in tumorigenesis77. Rapamycin,which binds the 1
90、2kDa immunophilin FK506-bind- ing protein (FKBP12) and inhibits the mTORC1complexis, and its derivatives, CCI-779 and RAD001, have been used in clinical trials for the treatment
91、60;of cancer. Recent evidence have indicated that tumor-suppression following rapamycin treatment is linked to the induction of autophagic cell death. mTOR inhibitors have been rep
92、orted to sensitize various tumor cells to radiation therapy78. For example, combined treatment of RAD001 with the caspase-3 inhibitor DEVD radio-sensitized non-small cell lung canc
93、er cells in mouse models, leading to enhanced cytotoxicity through induction of autophagy and to delayed tumor growth79. Thus, inhibition of mTOR by rapamycin or its deri
94、vatives provides a powerful therapeutic tool for the treatment of various malignancies.In addition to these reported agents, there are also other interesting examples of the a
95、utophagy-inducing agents from traditional Chinese medicine in cancer treatment. Arsenic trioxide (As2O3), a classical toxin from the traditional Chinese medicine, has been reported to
96、attribute to induction of apoptosis following cytochrome c release and caspase activation79.Ho- wever, treatment of human T-lymphocytic leukemia cells with arsenic trioxide has been
97、0;recently shown to cause cytotoxicity through induction of autophagy. The Bcl-2 family member, Bcl-2-adenovirus E1B 19-kDa-interacting protein 3 (BNIP3), is reported to play a pivotal role in arsenic trioxide-induce autophagic cell death in malignant glioma cells 80,81. Polygonatum cyrtonema lectin (PCL) has been reported to
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