版权说明:本文档由用户提供并上传,收益归属内容提供方,若内容存在侵权,请进行举报或认领
文档简介
1、教育与社会公平关系的再探讨 本文是2009年上海市社会学学会学术年会优秀论文奖作品,被选入卢汉龙、吴书松主编的转型社会研究文库:时代性与社会学一书,上海社会科学院出版社2010年出版。摘要:长期以来,教育一直被人们视为是促进社会公平的有力方式。然而,教育在社会公平方面的作用并非是自动实现的,而是需要相应的制度条件作为保障的。本文试图从学术界已有的经验研究出发,对教育在社会公平所起的作用进行理论剖析,从而帮助人们更好地理解教育与社会公平二者之间的内在关系。论文首先分析了社会公平的基本内涵和教育对社会公平的作用机制;其次,本文通过对教育收益率的分析,探讨教育决定社会流动的基本逻辑及表现形式;第三,
2、论文分析了高等教育机会在不同社会群体的分布情况,力图把握当前我国教育机会均等的基本态势;第四,论文进一步对基础教育资源配置情况这一影响高等教育机会获得的核心变量进行分析,探讨了教育资源配置不均衡对社会公平所造成的不利影响。本文通过研究认为,教育确实具有促进社会公平的极大作用,但必须建立在基础教育资源的均衡配置和高等教育机会的公平获取的基础之上。关键词:社会公平;作用机制;教育收益率;高等教育机会;教育资源配置;A Review on the relationship between education and social equityAbstract: Education has alway
3、s been seen as a powerful way to promote social equity during the past centuries. However, education as a promoter of social equity never acts automatically. It needs the appropriate supporting institutional conditions from the society. This paper attempts to explore the function of the education ca
4、rried to promote the social equity base on the empirical studies from the academic community. The paper first analyzes the concept and the basic content of social equity, and the way of the education attribute to the social equity. Second, this paper exams the rate of educational return, which is th
5、e core element of social mobility. Third,paper analyzes the opportunities for higher education among different social groups. Fourth, the paper explores the allocation of public educational resources. In this paper, studies suggest that education does have a significant role in promoting social equi
6、ty, but it only can be achieved by a balanced allocation of resources for basic education and equitable access for higher education opportunities.Keywords: Social Equity;Mechanism;Rate of Educational Return;Higher Education Opportunities;Educational Resource Allocation;一、问题的提出教育与社会公平二者之间的关系,长期以来都是学术
7、界关注的核心话题之一。一般认为,教育具有促进社会公平的作用,特别是在人类社会走向工业化社会以来,教育在社会生活中扮演着越来越为重要的角色,甚至已经成为个人获得自身经济和社会地位不可或缺的关键要素。正如美国教育社会学家科林斯所指出的,“在现代美国,教育在取得职业成就的过程中已变得极为重要。因此,在分析产生社会分层和社会流动的原因时, 教育占据了中心地位。” 张人杰国外教育社会学基本文选M上海:华东师范大学出版社,1991:42近年来,在我国社会主义市场经济体制不断完善、劳动力市场的市场化程度日益提高的宏观背景下,随着我国基础教育课程改革的深入和高等教育大众化进程的加快,教育在促进社会公平的作用问
8、题,再次成为学术界探讨的热点问题。然而,在已有的诸多相关论著中,要么将教育视为天然的促进社会公平的工具,进而采取批判的视角对当前教育系统中存在的各种问题进行抨击;要么单单基于各类统计数据,从指标上描述、探讨教育与社会公平之间的关系问题,而缺乏对教育促进社会公平的作用机制深入的剖析。这样一来,往往难于把握问题的关键之处,而让探讨和分析流于表面,给人一种隔靴搔痒之感。因此,要确切地把握教育与社会公平二者之间的关系问题,就有必要回到这一问题的原初,从学理的角度来探讨教育在促进社会公平方面所起到的作用、起作用的方式以及实现这些作用所应当具备的前提条件。具体而言,本文将对以下三个问题进行探讨:(1)教育
9、是如何促进社会公平的实现的?即教育在促进社会公平的作用机制是怎么样的?(2)教育通过哪些具体载体对社会公平产生影响?(3)教育促进社会公平的前提条件是什么?即在什么样的前提下,教育系统能够较好地发挥促进社会公平的作用?二、研究思路及理论逻辑对教育在促进社会公平作用问题的探讨,首先要明确的一个前提是:什么是社会公平?事实上,关于社会公平的内涵,一直以来是中外思想家们论争的焦点问题之一。究竟什么是社会公平?社会公平是否意味着所有社会成员拥有均等的财富和社会地位?事实显然并非如此,社会公平拥有自身非常丰富的内涵。在笔者看来,在目前国内学者对社会公平内涵的论述中,俞可平关于社会公平的定义最为中肯、到位
10、的,俞可平认为,“社会公平就是社会的政治利益、经济利益和其他利益在全体社会成员之间合理而平等的分配,它意味着权利的平等、分配的合理、机会的均等和司法的公正。社会公平是社会主义的本质要求,是衡量社会全面进步的重要尺度,是社会主义的核心价值之一,也是构建社会主义和谐社会的深厚基础。” 俞可平社会公平:社会主义的核心价值之一N人民日报,2005-01-07俞可平关于社会公平的这一论段,深刻地把握了社会公平的概念界定、本质特征以及核心内容。进而言之,社会公平的核心内容体现为“权利的平等、分配的合理、机会的均等和司法的公正”,“社会公平的内容不只是合理的财富分配,还包括公民的政治权利、社会地位、文化教育
11、、司法公正、社会救助、公共服务和社会福利等”。其中本文所关注的主题是教育在促进社会实现上述方面公平的作用机制。教育究竟如何能够促进社会公平的实现?这不仅是一个重要的理论问题,更是一个具有丰富实践内涵的现实问题。从经验观察及已有研究来看,教育促进社会公平的核心作用机制具体表现为教育的成层过程,即“社会成员因具有不同的教育程度, 而对社会地位、社会财富、权力、文化和职业进行再分配,使新的阶级和阶层得以形成的过程。” 顾明远教育大辞典(第六卷)M上海:上海教育出版社,1992:42在这一过程中,教育所扮演的角色就是将接受过不同层次教育的社会成员,输送到相应的职业中去。在这些职业中,该社会成员所掌握的
12、政治资源、经济资源和社会声望等因素,进而决定了该社会成员所处的社会地位。因此,教育作为社会分层的发生器,决定着社会成层和社会流动的过程。正如美国知名的社会学者索罗金所指出的,“学校是使人从社会底层向社会上层流动的电梯,学校通过考试来进行选拔,从而决定人们的社会地位”。 转引自潘懋元多学科观点的高等教育研究M上海:上海教育出版社,2001:260国内学者李强以非常独到的观察指出,“自古以来,中国教育制度的首要功能就是通过教育筛选而实现社会分层。最为典型的就是所谓科举制,通过考试筛选出各级官员。科举制显示出,筛选人是当时中国教育的第一位功能。这一点一直影响到今天,以高考为指挥棒的教育体制说明,筛选
13、和分层仍然是现行教育体制的首要功能。” 李强社会分层十讲M北京:社会科学文献出版社,2008:6.这样一来,教育对促进社会公平的作用机制问题,就可以具体化为:首先,我们需要考察接受教育是否真的促进了社会成员实现向上的社会流动?其中根本的问题在于他们是否拥有比父辈更好的职业选择、获取更高的经济收入?其次,我们需要进一步探明的是教育成层的作用幅度,即教育对社会成员的社会流动的作用情况,即接受何种教育可以实现多大程度上的社会流动,而当前的教育系统是否为社会成员提供合适的教育机会?第三,我们还必须回到教育的前端,分析基础教育中资源分配的情况,探讨占有不同基础教育资源的社会成员,是否具有同等的向上流动的
14、机会。这样一来,才能够对教育对促进社会公平的问题具有全面的理解和认识。在本文中,将在部分已有经验研究成果的基础上,从以下三个方面进行分析:首先,通过对改革开放以来,我国高等教育收益率的变动情况进行分析,探讨教育在个人经济社会地位方面所起的作用;二是对高等教育获得机会进行分析,探讨不同社会成员是否能够获得同等的接受高等教育机会;三是对当前我国教育基础教育的资源分配情况进行分析,探讨社会成员是否在起点上就接受合适的基础教育。三、教育收益率:社会流动的核心要素分析对社会公平的研究和探讨,社会学者们早已走出形而上的论争阶段,进而转向开展大量的实证研究阶段。社会成员的社会地位,是由于后天的努力而获得的,
15、还是由于先天的出身就决定了的,即到底是先赋性因素还是后致性因素决定了社会成员的社会地位,这是探讨社会公平时需要探讨的一个基本问题。总体而言,在封闭社会中,先赋性规则是主要的社会流动规则;而在开放性社会中,后致性规则是主要的社会流动规则。 陆学艺当代中国社会流动M北京:社会科学文献出版社,2004:2有学者指出,决定社会成员社会地位的“最为核心的还是经济方面的原因。所以,社会分层研究的是个人之间、群体之间的利益差异,特别是经济利益的差异,这涉及到对社会群体分类的最根本问题。从经济、物质利益上去剖析人类的行为,是最为深层次的解剖。” 李强社会分层十讲M北京:社会科学文献出版社,2008:5.因此,
16、要探讨教育对社会公正的作用机制,其中最为核心的切入点,在于分析教育对个人经济收入的影响关系。因此,这样一来,我们关注的焦点就可以转向对教育收益率的探讨。Third、 The returns on education: Core elements analysis of social mobility As to research and explore on social equity, social scholars have long been out of the metaphysical debates stage, and further step to carry out a lo
17、t of empirical research stage. The social status of the society members whether gets from acquired efforts or decided by congenital birth, that is, what is first ascribed factors or after induced factors determines the social status of the society members, which is a fundamental question when to exp
18、lore social equity. Generally speaking, in a closed society, the first ascription rule is the main social mobility rules; while in a open society, after induced rules is a major social mobility rules. Some scholars have pointed out that what determines the society members social status most is econo
19、mic reasons. Hence Social stratification research is the differences of interests between individuals, between groups, especially the differences of the economic interests; this involves the most fundamental problem of the classification of social groups. .dissect human behavior from the economic an
20、d material interests, is the most deep-seated of the anatomy. "Therefore, to discuss the education mechanism for social justice, one of the most central entry point, is to analyze impact of education on personal income. Thus, the focus of our attention can be turned to the returns on education.
21、关于教育收益率,国外的学者已经进行了大量的研究。这些研究主要是由教育经济学界的研究者开展的。“20世纪70年代以来,由于世界银行专家将内部收益率用于衡量教育投资的收益状况,并由此导出了教育发展的重要政策性建议,因此教育的内部收益率成为教育经济学界研究、争论和关注的焦点问题。迄今为止,无论是关于其他国家教育内部收益率的研究还是关于我国教育个人内部收益率的研究都取得了相关丰富的结果。” 闵维方高等教育运行机制研究M北京:人民教育出版社,2002:464.这些研究成果,特别是国内的研究成果,为本文的探讨提供了坚实的实证资料基础。根据国内若干关于高等教育收益率的重要研究表明,改革开放以来,我国的高等教
22、育收益率呈现不断提高的趋势,同时,受教育程度与收益增加幅度也成显著的正相关关系。 As to the returns on education, foreign scholars have conducted a lot of research. The study is carried out by the researchers of education in economic circles. "Since the 1970s, the experts of the World Bank used the internal rate of return to measure t
23、he return on investment in education, and thus derived the important policy advice for educational development, consequently, the internal rate of return of education become a focus concern in the field of Education and economic circles. So far, both in China and abroad, the research about internal
24、rate of return of education have achieved rich results, these findings, especially the domestic research, provided a basis of solid empirical data for the discussion of this paper. According to some domestic research about the returns on higher education shows, since the reform and opening up, the r
25、eturns China's higher education present a constantly rising trend, at the same time, the level of education and income increase become a significant positive correlation明瑟收益率是用来衡量就业者收入随着教育程度的提高而增加的对比率,其含义是:在相同工作年限的条件下,多接受一年教育的就业者收入比未接受该年的就业者的收入增加的比率。国内较早的一份研究是李实、李文彬进行的关于1998年城镇职工教育明瑟收益率的研究,该研究表明
26、,中国教育的总体明瑟收益率为3.8%,其中小学、初中、高中、和大学教育明瑟收益率分别为:2.7%、3.4%、3.9%和4.5%。 李实,李文彬中国教育投资的个人收益率的估计A赵人伟等中国居民收入分配研究C北京:中国社会科学出版社,1994 The Mincer yield is used to measure the income of employed persons with higher levels of education and increased contrast ratio, and its meaning is: accept employment income for th
27、e year of education than those without the acceptance of the conditions of the same work experience, multi increase the ratio of employment income. The earlier a study Li Shi, Li Wenbin study, which showed that China's overall education Mincer rate of return of 3.8% on the 1998 urban workers edu
28、cation Mincer yield, its primary and secondary schools, junior high school, high school and university education Mincer yield: 2.7%, 3.4%, 3.9% and 4.5%, respectively.陈晓宇、陈良焜以1996年中国国家统计局城市社会调查总队对在浙江、广东、湖北、辽宁、四川、甘肃和北京七省市4797户、15012人的入户调查数据为基础,计算教育的明瑟收益率。数据分析表明,对于同等工作年限的就业者而言,多受一年教育者收入增加5.33%,其中,初中程度
29、就业者的明瑟收益率为3.53%,高中程度的明瑟收益率为4.9%,中专程度就业者为5.67%,大专为5.9%,大学本科为8.23%。 闵维方高等教育运行机制研究M北京:人民教育出版社,2002:479.同时,该研究通过对相关数据的分析表明,从国际比较的角度来看,中国高等教育收益率相对偏低,但正处于明显提高的趋势之中。随着接受教育程度的提高,就业者的收入水平是得到显著提高的。 Chen Xiaoyu, Chen Liang Kun based on data of survey of 15,012 people in seven provinces and cities in Zhejiang,
30、Guangdong, Hubei, Liaoning, Sichuan, Gansu and Beijing 4797 made the by urban society of China's National Bureau of Investigation Corps in 1996, computing the Mincer returns of education . The data analysis shows that, for equivalent work length employment, with one more year educators income in
31、creased by 5.33%, junior high school level Mincer returns of 3.53%, the high school level Mincer rate of return of 4.9%, secondary degree of 5.67%, junior college of 5.9%, college undergraduate to 8.23%. At the same time, the study through the analysis of the data showed that, from the perspective o
32、f international comparison, the returns of higher education in China is relatively low, but it is in a trend of significantly improving. As to accept higher levels of education, the level of employment income is significantly improved.目前,学术界关于教育的个体收益情况的大量研究表明,改革开放以来,随着社会开放程度的不断深入和经济生活市场化水平的日益提高,教育对个
33、体经济和社会成员的促进作用表现得越来越为明显,教育促进个体向上的社会流动的作用日益得到彰显。当然,教育对社会成员所带来的收益,不仅仅是经济上的收益。目前,接受某种程度的教育已经成为政府部门、科研机构、知名企业等主要劳动力市场招聘的基本前提条件,而进入这些工作单位,受教育者还能够获得政治资本、社会资本及文化资本方面的收益,这些收益显然不能通过经济收益来直接衡量的。那些最终得到这些优势职位的社会成员,无疑在很大程度上实现了向上的社会流动。然而,谁能够拥有接受优质高等教育资源的机会,谁能够在优势职位竞争中脱颖而出,则是值得进一步分析的。At present, large numbers of stu
34、dies about individual returns of education made by academia have shown that, since the reform and opening up, with the increasing deepening of the open society and economic life of market-oriented level is increasing day by day, the facilitation of education on individual economic and social members
35、 become more obvious. Education promoting individual upward social mobility role is getting reveal. Of course, the returns of education to the society members is not only economic gains, To accept some degree of education has become a basic prerequisite for recruitment by government departments, res
36、earch institutions, and well-known enterprises such as labor market, entering these work units, the educated also able to obtain political capital, social capital and cultural capital, these gains obviously can not be measured by the economic benefits directly. Those social members ultimately get th
37、e advantage position, no doubt achieved upward social mobility largely. However, who can have the opportunity to receive higher quality education resources, who can come to the fore in the advantage position competition, it is worthy of further analysis.四、高等教育获得机会:实现社会公平的关键环节本文以上分析表明,教育具有增加个体的经济收入和非
38、经济收入,从而促进个体实现向上社会流动的功能。但这并不必然意味着从整体上而言,教育具有促进社会走向更加公平、开放的功能。在这里,我们还必须分析的问题是:到底是谁获得了教育机会?高等教育机会在不同社会阶层的分布情况如何?如果高等教育机会更多的是由原本就处于社会上层家庭的子女获得,那么这显然是不利于社会公平的实现的;反之,如果社会各阶层的家庭及其子女获得了同均的接受高等教育机会,由那些付出更多努力、能力较强的子女获得高等教育机会,那么这种社会形态无疑是更加公平、合理的。Fourth opportunities for Higher education: key link to achieve so
39、cial fairness The above analysis in this article shows that education has increased individual income and non-income, thereby contributing to the individual to achieve upward social mobility. But that does not necessarily mean that overall, education has the function of promoting the society towards
40、 a more equitable, open world. Here, we must also analyze the question is: who won educational opportunities? How Higher education opportunities distribution in the different social strata? If higher education opportunities is obtained by the original children in upper class families of the society,
41、 it is obviously not conducive to realize social equity; Conversely, if the families and their children of all social strata have the equal access to higher education opportunity, those who pay more efforts, have strong ability children get higher education opportunities, thus this social formation
42、is undoubtedly a more equitable and reasonable one.高等教育公平问题,主要探讨的是不同性别的学生、来自不同地区、不同家庭背景、不同经济收入家庭的学生接近高等教育的情况问题。 曾满超教育政策的经济分析M. 北京:人民教育出版社,2000:257.目前,关于高等教育机会公平的研究,已经产生了大量的研究成果。总体而言,这些研究基本上显示出一个大致相同的结论,即自1978年恢复高考制度以来,高等教育机会在不同社会群体之间的分布是不均等的,呈现出较为显著的差异性。The problem of Equity Higher Education, this m
43、ainly discusses the different gender students, from different areas and different family background, different economic income families students getting higher education issues. Now the research of Fair share on higher education opportunities, has generated a lot of research result. Overall, these s
44、tudies basically showed roughly the same conclusion, that is, since 1978 to restore the college entrance examination system, the distribution of higher education opportunities between different social groups is uneven, showing significant differences.国内较早一份相关研究是对在京8所高校1980年入学新生家庭背景的一项抽样调查研究,该调查研究结果表
45、明,新生家庭背景中,父亲是农民的学生比例占20.2%,工人的占25.0%,干部和专业技术人员的分别为15.5%和39.3%。 施云华,诸子平我国“教育机会均等”建设刍议J江苏教育学院学报(社科版),1993(1)有研究者根据当时这四类家庭从业人员占总人口的比例测算,得出结果表明,四个主要的职业阶层在总从业人员中的比例分别是75.12 %、18.15 %、2.15 %和3.19 %。由此可以得出其子女获得高等教育机会的可能性之比是:1525.1137.15。也就是说,在1980年,工人、干部和专业技术人员子女升入前述北京8所高校的机会分别是农民子女的5倍、25倍和37倍以上。 张玉林中国的职业阶
46、层与高等教育机会J北京师范大学学报(社会科学版),2005(3)1999 年底, 中国青年报发表了一份关于中国公民高等教育的报告,该报告对北京多所高校2000余名学生的抽样调查表明: 这些学生里,28%来自北京,30%来自北京以外的城市,24%来自全国各地不出名的城镇,18%来自农村。也就是说, 城乡大学生的比例分别是82%和18%。 杨东平对我国教育公平问题的认识和思考J教育发展研究,2000(8)这些数据表明,来自不同家庭背景、不同地区的适龄青年,接受高等教育的机会存在着极大的差异。A earlier study on a sample survey conducted in Beijin
47、g eight colleges about 1980 freshmen family background, the survey findings show that their family father farmers proportion of 20.2%, workers accounted for 25.0%, cadres and professional and technical personnel of 15.5% and 39.3% respectively. Researchers according to these four categories of famil
48、y employment of the proportion of the total population, the results show that the four major occupational hierarchy in the proportion of the total number of employees is 75.12%, 18.15%, 2.15% and 3.19% respectively. It concluded that the possibility of access to higher education opportunities for th
49、eir children than: 1:5:25.11:37.15. That is to say, in 1980, the children of workers, cadres and professional and technical personnel opportunity to ascend to the aforementioned eight colleges and universities in Beijing are five times, more than 25-fold and 37-fold compared with the farmers' ch
50、ildren. To the end of 1999, "China Youth Daily" published a report on the higher education of Chinese citizens, the report take a sample survey of more than 2,000 colleges and universities students in Beijing, it showed that: 28% of these students from Beijing, 30 percent from outside Beij
51、ing city, 24% from the not famous towns across the country, 18% from rural areas. In other words, the proportion of urban and rural students is 82% and 18% respectively. These data suggest that, there is a great difference between different family backgrounds, different parts of the school-age youth
52、 to access to higher education, 根据一项受世界银行和教育部委托、涉及37所不同层次高校的1994级和1997级学生近7万人调查研究表明,农民子女的比例随着院校层次的升高而降低;干部、企业管理人员和专业技术人员的子女则逐步升高。该研究将高校类型分为国家重点院校、一般重点院校、普通高校和地方高校4种类别,研究表明“干部、专业技术人员和企业管理人员的子女随着类别的升高,其上学的比例也相应升高。相反,农民和工人家庭的子女上大学是随着类别的升高,其上学比例逐渐减低。”此外,该调查的研究结果还显出了不同性别的学生在上升机会上存在的显著差异,如在国家重点院校1994级的学生中
53、,男女生的比例分别为:63.4%和36.6%,即男生进入国家重点院校的机会是女生的1.73倍,进一步分析也表明在农村生源中更是存在严重的男女不均衡现象。According to a commissioned by the World Bank and the Ministry of Education, involving 37 different levels of college between 1994 and 1997 students is nearly 70,000 in research shows that the proportion of farmers' chil
54、dren decreases with increasing institutional level; the children of Cadres, enterprise management personnel and professional and technical personnel gradually increase. The study divided colleges into key state institutions, the general key institutions, universities and local colleges and universit
55、ies four categories, studies have shown that children of cadres, professional and technical personnel and enterprise management personnel with the category increased its school proportion also increased accordingly. Instead, the children of farmers and workers, ascend to college with the category in
56、creased gradually reduce. "In addition, the survey results also show significant differences between different gender students, such as the 1994 students in key state institutions, the proportion of boys and girls, respectively: 63.4% and 36.6%, and that the boys chance to enter key national in
57、stitutions is 1.73 times of the girls, further analysis also shows that in rural students exist more serious gender imbalances.除了对来自不同家庭背景、地区、性别的适龄青年的入学机会的研究成果外,也有学者对来自不同家庭背景的学生专业选择情况进行分析。如孟东方和李志对重庆8所高校学生的家庭背景和所学专业关系进行调查表明,在被调查的785名“热门专业”的学生中,党政干部、企事业单位干部和专业技术人员的子女合计占47.1%,高出总体比例(33.9%) 13.2%,农民子女则只
58、有24.18%,低于总体比例14.4%。而对449 名“冷门专业”学生的分析则发现,干部和专业技术人员的子女较少,农民子女则占54.8%,高出总体15.6%,其中在农学、农业化学、铸造三个专业中,竟分别占到72%、73.1%和80%。 孟东方,李志学生父亲职业与高等学校专业选择关系的研究J青年研究,1996(1)Except the analysis From different family background, region, gender enrollment of school-age youth opportunities research, scholars also analy
59、ze the situation of students professional choices from different family backgrounds. Meng Dongfang and Lee Zhi research in eight college students in Chongqing between family background and the major relationship investigation showed that of 785 popular professional students surveyed, the party and government cadres, cadres of enterprises and professional technical personnel children together accounted for 47.1%, higher than the overall propor
温馨提示
- 1. 本站所有资源如无特殊说明,都需要本地电脑安装OFFICE2007和PDF阅读器。图纸软件为CAD,CAXA,PROE,UG,SolidWorks等.压缩文件请下载最新的WinRAR软件解压。
- 2. 本站的文档不包含任何第三方提供的附件图纸等,如果需要附件,请联系上传者。文件的所有权益归上传用户所有。
- 3. 本站RAR压缩包中若带图纸,网页内容里面会有图纸预览,若没有图纸预览就没有图纸。
- 4. 未经权益所有人同意不得将文件中的内容挪作商业或盈利用途。
- 5. 人人文库网仅提供信息存储空间,仅对用户上传内容的表现方式做保护处理,对用户上传分享的文档内容本身不做任何修改或编辑,并不能对任何下载内容负责。
- 6. 下载文件中如有侵权或不适当内容,请与我们联系,我们立即纠正。
- 7. 本站不保证下载资源的准确性、安全性和完整性, 同时也不承担用户因使用这些下载资源对自己和他人造成任何形式的伤害或损失。
最新文档
- 新手入门:身体护理常见问题
- 高龄老人照护要点
- 尿道感染的护理实践分享
- MDS患者的康复护理
- 肌肤修复与再生技巧
- 腹泻的康复期护理
- 管道并发症的识别与处理
- 委托理财合同的法律剖析与实践审视:从理论到案例的深度探究
- 2025 七年级数学上册正数负数概念深化课件
- 透析患者的用药管理
- 2025年通信基础知识题库附答案
- 2026广西融资担保集团校园招聘10人历年真题汇编带答案解析
- 2025年gmp综合知识培训试题及答案
- 2025年质量手册宣贯培训试卷及答案
- 2025秋苏教版(2024)小学科学二年级第一学期期末质量检测卷附答案
- 黑龙江省哈尔滨市2025-2026学年九年级上学期期中语文试题(含答案及解析)
- 购物中心应急预案流程图
- 离婚协议(2026年版本)
- 安全员c证考试真题库及答案
- 舟山事业编考试题及答案
- 2025年中小学生趣味百科知识竞赛题库及答案
评论
0/150
提交评论