Lexicology复习要点

1、Lexicology复习要点Linguistics:Generally speaking, linguistics can be defined as the scientific studyof language. To be more exact, linguistics studies the general principles upon which languages are constructed and operate as systems of human communicationLanguage: Language is a system of arbitrary voca

2、l symbols used for human communication. It is a specific social action and a carrier of information.Lexicology: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, structure, formation, meaning and usag

3、e.1. Definition of Word:Word: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has given sound and meaning and syntactic function.A word comprises the following points: a minimal free form of a language(2) a sound unity(3) a unit of meaning(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence2. Sound and

4、 meaning:The symbolic connection between sound and meaning is almost always arbitrary. 3. Vocabulary:All the words in a language make up its vocabulary.4. Classification of words:Words fall into the basic words and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by noti

5、on, and into native words and borrowed words by origin.By notion, words can be grouped into content words and functional words. content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. they include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals, which denote objects, phenomena, actio

6、n, quality, state, degree, quantity, etc.Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. as their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words.5. Develo

7、pment of English vocabulary:Old English (450 1150): Celtic - Latin of the RomanLegions - Anglo-Saxon of the Germantic tribes (now people generallyrefer to Anglo-Saxon as old English)-religious terms brought by the introduction of Christianity (6th century)-Scandinavian words of Norwegian and Danish

8、vikings (the 9th century)Middle English:French of Norman (1066) - English came back (13th century)Modern English: Early Modern English (1500 1700): Latin and Greek were borrowed in the time of RenaissanceLate Modern English (after 1700): absorbing words from all major languages of the world with the

9、 growth of colonization. (Mid-seventeenth) - new words created about science and technology (after World War II)6. Characteristics of English:Old English: Old English was a highly inflected language, language of full endings.Middle English: Language of leveled endings.Modern English: English has env

10、olved from a synthetic language （Old English） to the present analytic language.8. Causes of the development:Generally, there are three main sources of new words: the rapid development of modern science and technology; social, economic and political changes; the influence of other cultures and langua

11、ges.9. Morpheme:The morpheme is “the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words". Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units.10. Allomorph:Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discreet units known as morphs.Most morphemes are realized by single morphs and the

12、y coincide with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence. Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words.An allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morphemeas conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.11. Classification of morphemes:Free morpheme: Morphemes whi

13、ch are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themsekes and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.Free morphemes are free roots.Bound morpheme: Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words bound. They are so named because th

14、ey are bound to other morphemes to form words.Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words.12. Root and affixRoot: A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.Free root: free roots can stand alone as words and provide the language with a

15、 basis for the formation of new words.Bound roots （粘着词根）: A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be

16、further analyzed without total loss for identity. In terms of derivational and inflectional morphology, a" rootis that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. " A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be ad

17、ded.Affixes （词缀）:Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional and derivational affixes.Inflectional affix (inflectional morpheme):An inflectional affix serves toexpres

18、s such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. It does not form a new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to anotherword.Derivational affix (derivational morpheme):it is so called because when itis added to another morpheme, it “derivates " a new word

19、. Many derivational affixes have a specific lexical meaning.The most productive word-formations are affixation, compounding and conversion. 13. Derivation:Derivation:Derivation or affixation is generally defined as a word-formationprocess by which new words are created by adding a prefix, or suffix,

20、 or both, to the base.Prefixation:Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding a prefix orcombing form to the base. Pre巾xes modify the lexical meaning of the base. Negative prefixes: a-, dis-, in- (il-, ir-, im-), non-, un-(2) Reversative prefixes: de-, dis-, un-(3) Pejorative prefixes: mal-,

21、 mis-, pseudo-(4) Prefixes of degree or size: arch-, extra-, hyper-, macro-, micro-, mini-, out-, over-, sub-, super, sur-, ultra-, under-(5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude: anti-, contra-, counter-, pro-(6) Locative prefixes: extra-, fore-, inter-, intra-, tele-, trans- Prefixes of time and o

22、rder: ex-, fore-, post-, pre-, re-(8) Number prefixes: bi-, multi- (poly-), semi- (hemi-), tri-, uni- (mono-)(9) Miscellaneous prefixes: auto-, neo-, pan-, viceSuffixation:Suffixation is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix ora combing form to the base, and usually changing the word-class

23、of the base.Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class.(1) Noun suffixes:A. Denominal nouns:Concrete: The suffixes of this group are added to noun bases to produce concrete noun

24、s: -eer, -er, -ette, -let, . profiteer (person who makes unfairly large profits).Abstract: The following suffixescome at them end of noun stems to form abstractnouns: -age, -dom, -ery, -hood, -ing,-ism, -ship, . wastage, mileage, officialdom(officials as a group)B. Deverbal nouns:The following suffi

25、xes combine with verb stems to create largely nouns denoting people: -ant, -ee, -ent, -er (-or),. assistant, informant (one who gives informationto police, etc.)Suffixes of this group added to verb stems to produce largely abstract nouns, denoting action, result, process, state, etc.: -age, -al, -an

26、ce, -ation (-ition, -tion, -sion, -ion), ence, -ing, -ment, . linkage, carriage.C. De-adjective nouns:-ity, -ness, . popularity, productivity, happiness,largenessD. Noun and adjective suffixes:A small number of suffixes, when added to stems related to human beings or nationality names, form words th

27、at can be both as nouns and adjectives: -ese, -an, -ist, . Lebanese, Chinese(2) Adjective suffixes:A. Denominal suffixes: -ed, -ful, -ish, -less, -like, -ly, -y, . wooded, simple-minded.B. Deverbal suffixes: -able (-ible), -ive (-ative, -sive), . washable, arguable, permissible, active, decisive, pr

28、oductive.(3) Adverb suffixes:-ly, -ward(s), -wise, . calmly, naturally, publicly,homewards, downward, onward, clockwise (in the direction in which the hands of the clock move), education-wise (so far as education is concerned).(4) Verb suffixes: -ate, -en, -(i)fy, -ize (-ise),. originate (have as or

29、igin);darken, heighten, strengthen, solidify (make solid), beautify (make more beautiful); modernize, symbolize.14. Compounding:(1) Compounding: Compounding or composition is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word. Compound is a a lexical

30、 unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.”(2) Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:Phonetic features:In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the firstelement whereas in noun phrases the second elem

31、ent is generally stressed.Semantic features: Compoundsare different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.Grammatical features:A compound tends to play a single grammatical role insentence.(3) Classification of compounds:Noun compoundsAdjec

32、tive compoundsVerb compounds15. ConversionConversion: Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. Conversion is also known as functional shift; Conversion is also named zero-derivation for not adding an affix; The use of the verb converted is both econ

33、omical and vivid.16. Abbreviation or shortening:Abbreviation:Abbreviation refers to word formation through clipping,initialisms and acronyms. These short forms are quicker and more convenient in use and for this reason they are becoming more and more popular especially in web English. Clipping:(1) C

34、lipping: Clipping denotes the deletion of one or more syllables from a word. Words created by clipping are called clipped words.B. Type of clippingTypesExamplesFront clipping (aphaeresis)earth quake, para chute, heli copter, tele phone, omnibus, bull dozerBack clipping (apocope)stereo phonic, gent l

35、eman, fan atic , advertisement , dormitory , examination , champ ionFront & back clippingin flu enza, re frige ratorMiddle clipping (syncope)Ltd (limited), yr (year/your)Phrase clippingZoo = zoological garden(2) Initialism:Initialism:Initialisms are words formed from the initial letters of words

36、, andpronounced as a sequence of letters.(3) AcronymsAcronyms: Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as single words.(4) BlendingBlending: Blending is a process of word-formation by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. The result of

37、 such a process is called a blend, which combines the sounds and meanings of two others.17. Back-formation:Back-formation:Back-formation is a term used to refer to a type ofword-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the

38、language.18. OnomatopoeiaMost English words are conventional, arbitrary symbols; consequently there is no intrinsic relation between the sound-symbol and its sense.19. Reference:Reference: Reference is the relationship between language and the world. In other words only when a connection has been es

39、tablished between the linguistic sign and a referent does the sign become meaningful.Concept: which is beyond language, is the result of humancognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.The meaning of “meaning" is perhaps what is termed “sense".20. Motivation:Onomatopoeic /

40、 Phonetic motivation:In modern English one may find some wordswhose sounds suggest their meanings, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example, bow-wow, bang, cuckoo, tick-tckMorphological motivation: Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemicwords and th

41、e meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. Forinstance, airmail meansto “mail by air ” , reading-lamp is the “lamp for reading ", miniskirt is a“small skirt " and hopeless means “without hope ".Semantic motivation:Semantic motivation refers to the mental associati

42、onssuggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. . pen and sword in“The penis mightier than the sword " suggest “writing " and "war" respectively.Etymological motivation:The meanings of many w

43、ords often relate directly totheir origins. The word laconic meaning “brief " or "short " is derived from Lacons, a tribe of people who were known for their “ brevityof speech " and for their habitof never using more words than necessary. Hence a laconic answer is a“shortanswer&q

44、uot;.21. Semantic features:Semantic features: The analysis of word meaning is often seen as a process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components, which are known as semantic features or sense components.22. Semantic field:Semantic field:Semantic field refers to a set of words （

45、or lexemes） relatedin meaning. Semantic field takes the view that the vocabulary of a given language is not simply a listing of independent items （as the headwords in dictionary would suggest）, but is organized into areas or fields, within which words interrelate and define each other in various way

46、s.23. Grammatical meaning（语法意义）：Grammatical meaning（语法意义）refers to that part of meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as the word class, singular and plural forms of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms （forget, forgets, forgot, forgotten

47、, forgetting）.24. Lexical meaning（词?匚意义）：Lexical meaning（词?匚意义）is the meaning of an isolated word in a dictionary.This component of meaning is identical in all the forms of the word.Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.25. Conceptual meaning（概念意义）：Con

48、ceptual meaning（概念意义）（also known as denotative meaning） is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. Conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as the same word has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers of the same language.26. Associate meaning（关联意义

49、）:Associate meaning（ 关联意义 ）is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is liabletothe influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education, etc.Associative meaning comprises

50、 four types: connotative meaning, stylistic meaning, affective meaning, and collocative meaning.27. Connotative meaning （ 内涵意义）：Connotative meaning :In contrast to denotative meaning, connotative meaningrefers to the overtones or associations which a word suggests。门mplies.28. Stylistic meaning（ 文体意义

51、）：Stylistic meaning: Words may have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.This stylistic difference is especially true of synonyms. It is observed that there are few words which have both the same conceptual meaning and stylistic meaning.Degrees of formalityFormalNeu

52、tral/CommonInformal/ Colloquial29. Affective meaning（ 情感意义）：Affective meaning: Affective meaning indicates the speaker' s attitude towards the person or thing in conversation.Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories:Appreciative or commendatory（ 褒义）： words of positive overtone

53、s used to show appreciation or approval.Pejorative or derogatory（ 贬义）： words of negative connotations imply disapproval, contempt or criticism. 30. Collocative meaning（搭配意义）：Collocative meaning:Collocative meaning consists of the associations a wordacquires in 让s collocation. In other words, it is t

54、hat part of the word meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion. 31. Polysemy:Polysemy: Polysemy means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time. The bulk of English words are polysemantic, such as albatross; one-meaning words are rare and are mainly sci

55、entific terms, such as hydrogen. 32. HomonymyHomonym: Homonyms are words which have the same phonological or spelling form but differ in meaning. Such a linguistic phenomenon, . identity of form and diversity of meaning is referred to as homonymy.Homographs （同形异义词） ： Homographs are words identical i

56、n spelling, but different in sound and meaning.Homophones （同音异义词）：Homophonesare words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning.perfect homonyms （完全同音同形异义词） ：Perfect homonyms are words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning.The fundamental difference between homonyms

57、 and polysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meaning. one important criterion is to see their etymology, . homonymsare from different sourceswhereas a polysema

58、nt is from the same source which has acquired different meaningsin the course of development. The second principal considerationis semanticrelatedness. The various meanings of a polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning to a greater o门esser degree. On the other hand, meanings of different homonymshave nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.33. Context:Context includes Linguistic c