基础英语写作(三)

1、.1.2 A paragraph is a unit of thought; it is at once a unity in itself and part of a larger whole, that is, the essay. A paragraph is like a mini-essay; it should be unified, coherent and well developed.3 A paragraph is unified when all the sentences in the paragraph are focused on one central thoug

2、ht or on a single topic; when the writer wishes to introduce a new thought or topic, he should begin a new paragraph. A paragraph is coherent when it develops naturally and smoothly, and one sentence leads logically to another. There are many ways to develop a paragraph, for example, by process, by

3、cause and effect, by comparison and contrast, etc.4. Effective Paragraphs1. Unity Unity of a paragraph is concerned with its content. If all the sentences in the paragraph lead to one central theme, the paragraph is unified. The central theme is usually summarized in what is called the topic sentenc

4、e. It often appears at the beginning of the paragraph; however, it may also be found in the middle or at the end of a paragraph.5For instance: Ive done my share of leaning on their shoulders over the years. I never felt there was anything I couldnt tell my Mom and Dad, and I am the kind who has to g

5、et it all out when I have a problem. Over the years theyve heard it all: the time in junior high when one boy was constantly bugging me, the time in high school when I got caught drinking, the time I wrecked their Volkswagen Rabbit, rough times with my former boyfriend, and on and on.6Exercises: Fin

6、d out the topic sentence of the following paragraph: There are two factors which determine an individuals intelligence. The first is the sort of brain he is born with. Human brains differ considerably, some being more capable than others. But no matter how good a brain he has to begin with, an indiv

7、idual will have a low order of intelligence unless he has opportunities to learn. .7 So the second factor is what happens to the individualthe sort of environment in which he is brought up. If an individual is in poor environment, it is likely that his brain will fail to develop and he will never at

8、tain the level of intelligence of which he is capable.8Exercises. Cross out the sentence that is not connected to the topic of this paragraph: Books are placed on the library shelves in numerical order. In other words, all the books on one subject are put together under the same number; for example,

9、 all books on United States history are numbered 973, and are placed together on the 973 shelf or shelves. Of course, such books are borrowed mostly by students who learn history.92. Coherence Coherence of a paragraph is concerned with its form, or its organization. The sentences in a paragraph shou

10、ld be arranged in a clear, logical order, and the transitions should be smooth and natural. As a result, the reader finds it easy to follow the writers train of thought and understand what he is talking about.10For instance: There is some feeling nowadays that reading is not as necessary as it once

11、was. Radio and especially television have taken over functions once served by painting and other graphic arts. Admittedly, television serves some of these functions extremely well; the visual communication of news events, for example, has enormous impact. .11 The ability of radio to give us informat

12、ion while we are engaged in doing other thingsfor instance, driving a caris remarkable, and a great saving of time. But it may be seriously questioned whether the advent of modern communications media has much enhanced our understanding of the world in which we live.12Exercise: Listed below are a co

13、ntrolling idea and nine sentences that develop the controlling idea. Renumber the sentences to arrange them in what you think is the best order; then compose a paragraph, using the controlling idea as your first sentence. .13 The controlling idea: Since I began living in an apartment and going to sc

14、hool, my biggest problem has been the housework.14a）Cooking my food is a bigger problem.b）The worst problem is doing my laundry.c）Cleaning the apartment is not too bad; although it takes time away from my studies; at least when I finish the apartment looks nice.15 d）Sometimes the food is burned, som

15、etimes it is not cooked enough, and sometimes I have not measured correctly, so the food tastes terrible. e）Shopping for my food is more difficult because I dont know the English names of many foods, and often I have to spend extra time asking for help. f）The Laundromat is far from my apartment, and

16、 I waste much valuable time.16g）I have never had to cook before, and usually the results are discouraging.h）Mostly I am embarrassed as I sit in the Laundromat with all the women, and so I wait until all my clothes are dirty before I do this terrible task.i）I also have trouble with the complicated in

17、structions, so occasionally I end up with pink socks or a shirt that is too small.173. Transition Coherence may not be perfect even if the writer arranges his sentences in a clear, logical order. He has to use good transitions so that one sentence runs smoothly to another.18The following ways may he

18、lp the writer to produce a fluent paragraph: A) Using parallel structures;B) Repeating words or words groups;C) Using pronouns to refer to nouns in preceding sentences;.19D) Being consistent in the person and number of nouns and pronouns, and the tense of verbs;E) Using transitional expressions.20a)

19、 Connectives and transitional phrases for spatial development: above before me here on the left below there in the distance on the right nearby next to on top of down close to.21b) Connectives and transitional phrases for chronological development: first, second, etc soon eventually in the meantime

20、then finally after an interval now after presently later at last.22c) Connectives and transitional phrases for analytical development: first, second, etc for this purpose as a result furthermore moreover but consequently otherwise likewise for instance in addition on the contrary in this case on the

21、 other hand thus in conclusion therefore.23d) Connectives and transitional phrases for comparison: another furthermore equally important besides accordingly in fact in the same way in addition to similarly.24e) Connectives and transitional phrases for contrasts: on the contrary different from in con

22、trast in spite of whereas yet, but not onlybut also thisthat the formerthe latter someothersstill others on the one handon the other hand the firstwhereas the second.25Exercise: Read the following passages and identify the grammatical and lexical cohesive devices in them. Understanding and accepting

23、 that true happiness has nothing to do with fun is one of the most liberating realizations we can ever come to. It liberates time: now we can devote more hours to activities that can genuinely increase our happiness. .26 It liberates money: buying that new car or those fancy clothes that will do not

24、hing to increase our happiness now seems pointless. It liberates us from envy: we now understand that all those rich and glamorous people we were so sure are happy because they are always having so much fun actually may not be happy at all.27Key: At least six cohesive devices are employed in this pa

25、ssage. 1).Use pronouns to replace noun or noun phrases. e.g. Understand and accepting that true happiness has nothing to do with funit;those rich and glamorous peoplethey. 2). Use determiners (the, this, that, etc) to refer to previous noun phrases. e.g. That new car; those fancy clothes; those rich

26、 and glamorous people. 3). Repeat the key words. e.g. happiness; fun; liberate.28 4). Use synonyms or words of similar meaning to express the same idea. e.g. understandingaccepting; timehours; realizationunderstand; moneybuy. 5.) use related word forms. e.g. Liberatingliberated, happinesshappy; usou

27、rwe 6). use parallel structures. e.g. It liberated time. it liberated money it liberated us from envy.29Exercise: Read the following paragraph carefully. Insert transitional expressions where necessary. Yankelovich helps explain the dilemma of American workers. Most want to do their best. They do no

28、t work as hard as they could. They feel that others receive the benefit of their hard work. Yankelovich doesnt see this attitude as a sign of a weak work ethic. .30 He feels the attitude toward work would change if workers made more of the decisions that affect their work. There is a message for man

29、agers in Yankelovichs findings. Managers need to allow workers to express their needs. They need to listen to what workers say.31. Ways of Developing Paragraph 1. Planning a ParagraphParagraphs need to be planned. First, think of the topic or theme of main idea, and express it in a complete sentence

30、 (topic sentence). Then think of the details or examples or facts that may be used to support or explain the main idea. Arrange them in logical order, and you have a rough plan of the paragraph.322. Development by Time In telling a story or recounting an event, the easiest and clearest way is to des

31、cribe things in order of time: earlier things are mentioned before later things, the first thing first and the last thing last. This method is also called chronological sequencing.33For instance: My heart gave a leap when I heard the announcement that our train would soon arrive at its destinationBe

32、jing. Like other passengers, I began to collect my things and put my mug, towel, atlas, apples, and other things into my bag. To the tune of a beautiful song the train pulled into the station and gently stopped by a platform. .34 I walked out of the train and was carried forward by the stream of peo

33、ple into an underground passage and then into a big hall. As I stepped out of the station, I was dazzled by the bright autumn skies of Beijing. Though I had been on the train for more than thirty hours and spent a sleepless night, I didnt feel tired at all, and I believed my days in Beijing would be

34、 as sunny as the skies.353. Development by Process When you have to explain how something is done, you usually follow a chronological sequence and give a step-by-step description. As the steps must occur one after another, the exact order in which they are carried out is most important.36For example

35、: Once you encounter a person who has stopped breathing, you should begin immediately to do mouth-to-mouth breathing. First, place the victim on his back and remove any foreign matter from his mouth with your fingers. Then tilt his head backwards, so that his chin is pointing up. .37 Next, pull his

36、mouth open and his jaw forward, pinch his nostrils shut to prevent the air which you blow into his mouth from escaping through his nose. Then place your mouth tightly over the victims. Blow into his mouth until you see his chest rise. Then turn your head to the side and listen for the out rush of ai

37、r which indicates an air exchange. Repeat the process.384. Development by Space Before we begin to describe a place, whether it is a large country or a small room, we have to decide on the order in which to name the different parts or details. For this we should find out the space relationships betw

38、een them and arrange our description accordingly. It would only confuse the reader to mention them in a haphazard way. .39For instance: Mr. Cook, a renowned American historian, arranges the books on his bookshelves in a unique way. In the upper right hand corner, there are books about the developmen

39、t of the early colonies in New England and the War of Independence. Right under them can be found books on the slave trade, the plantation system and the growth of the southern states. .40 The left side of the shelf contains hundreds of books concerning subjects of the Westward Movement, Indian cult

40、ure, the cowboys contributions to American society and the Gold Rush in California. Form the description above, one can see that Mr. Cooke regards his bookshelves as map of the U. S. and arranges his history books accordingly. It is odd, but it is convenient.415. Development by Example or Generaliza

41、tion Supporting a topic sentence with examples or illustrations makes a general statement specific and easy to understand. An illustration is a case, a specimen, an instance. Vivid illustration light up abstract ideas and make them clear, interesting, memorable, or convincing.42 If a paragraph start

42、s with a topic sentence, then detailed examples or illustrations are given to back up the opening statement, this is general-to-specific pattern.43For instance: My little niece, a ten-month baby, is the most lovely child I have ever seen. Her face is like a red apple and her eyes are like bright sta

43、rs. When you carry her in your arms, she likes to put her arms around your neck. All the grownups in the family love her very much and often try to make her smile. But quite often it is she who makes us laugh. Once I winked at her and she smiled. .44 When I did it again, she watched me attentively.

44、Then she tried to imitate. While we closed one eye to wink, she had to close both eyes at the same time, and then quickly opened them again. And that was her way to wink. We all burst into laughter. When we looked at her again, she was staring at us, puzzled, as if she was asking: “What are you laug

45、hing at?” .45 Another possible arrangement of details (or examples) in a paragraph is from the specific to the general. The details are mentioned first, and the general statement, which may be the topic sentence, comes at the end of the paragraph, summarizing the main idea of the paragraph.46For exa

46、mple: Whether you do or do not open a gift in the presence of the giver; whether you should or should not turn the plate over to look at the makers symbol on the back; whether you eat as quietly or as noisily as possible; whether you carry on a conversation during a meal; whether you walk in front o

47、f or behind a seated person; .47 whether it is a friendly or an offensive gesture to put your hand on the arms of the person with whom you are talking these and a thousand other questions are matters of cultural definition. None of them inherently right or wrong, and none is good or bad manners exce

48、pt as society defines it so.486. Development by Comparison and Contrast The method of comparison and contrast is often used. We compare the present and the past of China, the cultures of the east and west, Chinese and English. By comparison and contrasting we may get a clearer picture of things.49 S

49、trictly speaking, a comparison points out the similarities between two or more persons or things of the same class, while a contrast, the differences between them. In practice, however, comparison and contrast often appear together, because people generally compare two things that are similar in cer

50、tain ways and different in others.50For instance: Some ole people are oppressed by the fear of deathThe best way to overcome itso at least it seems to meis to make your interests gradually wider and more impersonal, until bit by bit the walls of the ego recede, and your life becomes increasingly eme

51、rged in the universal life. An individual human existence should be like a riversmall at first, narrowly contained within its banks, and rushing passionately past rocks and over waterfalls. .51 Gradually the river grows wider, the banks recede, the waters flow more quietly and in the end, without an

52、y visible break, they become merged in the sea, and painlessly lose their individual being. The man who, in old age, can see his life in this way, will not suffer from the fear of death, since the things he cares for will continue. (Bertrand Russell) .527. Development by Cause and Effect In our dail

53、y conversation, questions with why are often asked and answered. This shows that causal analysis is very common; it is something we are familiar with.53 There are two basic ways of organizing paragraphs developed by cause and effect. The first method is to state an effect and devote the rest of the

54、paragraph to examining the cause. .54For instance: the topic sentence is: “In the past few years, higher education has become less important to young people than it was previously.” This is an effect. It should be followed by a discussion of the causes of this effect, such as “the pressure of fierce

55、 competition, better opportunities in the job market, much of the knowledge taught in universities and colleges being out-dated”, and so forth.55The second method is to state a cause and then mention or predict the effects. Suppose the topic sentence is: “More and more fertile land in China is taken

56、 up by new buildings.” In the rest of the paragraph the effects of this development should be mentioned, such as “the reduction of the grain output, increasing environmental problems, too many peasants moving into the cities”, etc.568. Development by Classification To classify is to sort things into

57、 categories according to their characteristics. We classify many things: trees, rivers, cities, companies, college students. We group things according to their similarities and differences.57 Parallelism is essential to a good classification. For example, if we classify types of sports, we may speak

58、 of track ad field events, swimming, ball games, gymnastics, etc. if we classify sports into jumping, ball games, running, floor exercise and backstroke, we would violate parallelism, for ball games should be considered a general category, .58 while jumping and running are subcategories of the track

59、 and field events; gymnastics is a general category, and floor exercise a particular form of it. In short, in a good classification the parts must be parallel, and they should add up to the whole.59For instance: There are three kinds of book owners. The first has all the standard sets and best-selle

60、rsunread, untouched. This deluded individual owns woodpulp and ink, not books. The second has a great many booksa few of them read through, most of them dipped into, but all of them as clean as shiny as the day they were bought. .60 This person would probably like to make books his own, but is restr