文献阅读与翻译Unit 2

1、Unit 2 Professional Papers（4hrs）1. Definition of professional papers A professional paper is a typewritten paper in which professionals present their views and research findings on a chosen topic. It is variously known as the “research paper”, “course paper”, “thesis paper” or “library paper”. Despi

2、te the various names, the task of the author of a paper is essentially the same: to read on a particular topic, gather information about it, and report the findings in it.A professional paper can not be written randomly. It must conform to a special format, which governs the entire paper from the pl

3、acing of the title to the width of the margins, and to the notation used in acknowledging material drawn from other sources.A professional paper differs from other non-professional essays in that it involves the use of library sources from which facts, quotations, and the opinions of others are draw

4、n to explain , support , or authenticate ideas in the paper. These sources are identified by numbered notes, places at the end of the paper or at the bottom of the page. A professional paper usually concludes with a bibliography , and an alphabetical list of all sources cited. 2.Classification of pr

5、ofessional papers The four kinds of papers usually assigned in universities and colleges are (1) report papers; (2) research papers; (3) course papers, and (4)thesis papers.1) Report PaperThe report paper summarizes and reports the findings of an other on a particular subject. The writer neither jud

6、ges nor evaluates the findings, but merely catalogs them in a sensible sequence. For instance, a paper that listed the opinions of statesmen during the debate over a certain event would be a report paper. Likewise, a paper that chronologically narrated the final days od a personality would also be c

7、alled a report paper.2) Research paperA research paper can be intelligent, well informed, interesting, and original in its conclusions. It draws its material from many sources and aims to assemble facts and ideas by studying them to draw new conclusions on the basis of obtained data observed facts ,

8、 or to present the material in the light of a new interest.3) Course PaperDifferent from report papers and research papers, course papers are written after a specific course is learned or are designed at the end of a term. This type of paper is, therefore, also called “term paper”.4) Thesis PaperUnl

9、ike report papers, the thesis paper takes a definite stand on an issue. A thesis is a proposition or point of view that a writer or speaker is willing to argue against or defend. A paper that argued for ratification of a certain event would therefore be a thesis paper. Writing a thesis paper require

10、s a writer to exercise judgment, evaluate evidence, and construct a logical argument, whereas writing a report paper does not. The candidate must also complete examinations and present a written thesis or dissertation. The doctoral thesis represents an original contribution to knowledge, and is a mo

11、re detailed study of a research problem than that required for the masters degree. In general, dissertation is a lengthy, formal treatise, especially one written by a candidate for the doctoral degree at university.3. Linguistic Features of Professional Papers1) Formal StyleA professional paper deal

12、s with the study of some objective facts or problems, and the conclusion that is drawn should be based on relevant data, not on personal likes and dislikes. It is particularly important in any kind of scientific inquiry; it does not matter who is conducting the experiment or investigation. Being imp

13、ersonal and free from emotional factors is one of the important features in professional writing. The need to be formal comes from the fact that science reflects the objective facts, and it is free from bias and prejudice. The need for objectivity becomes a matter of special concern whenever a resea

14、rch or investigation touches upon human actions or attitudes. The focus of professional writing is upon the data and upon the analysis of the data, for example, instead of writing:I carried out an experiment to investigate the effect of light on plant growth.It would be more conventional to say:An e

15、xperiment was carded out to investigate the effect of light on plant growth.Generally speaking, formal writing sets an unusually high value on objectivity, meticulousness, accuracy, and restraint. It is directed to the readers mind and makes little efforts to appeal to his emotions. Its purposes are

16、 utilitarian, and it is usually intended for readers who already have, to some degree, a special interest in the subject matter or are even experienced colleagues in the same trade. Consequently, though it places a high value on interest, it does not try to be so colorful and entertaining that it ru

17、ns the risk of becoming flashy.2) Specialized TermsThe terms in professional papers are typically specialized. Take the word “normal” as an example. Generally, it means “iEee”; but in mathematics, it represents “法线”; and in the field of chemistry, “当量” Again the word “power.” In electronics, it is r

18、endered as “电力” or “电源”; in mechanics, “动力”; whereas in mathematics, “幂”Even in the same field, the meanings of the same word may vary slightly due to its different collocations, for example:filter 滤波器, 滤色器 tramp filter 干扰滤除器amplitude filter 振辐滤色器 filter paper 滤纸primary filter 基色滤色器What is more, a g

19、reat number of professional words and terms can only be understood by the specialists in the fields, e.g., decoder (译码器), photophor (磷光核), multi-quantum transition (多量子跃迁), Read Only Memory (只读储存器) and conversational implicatures (会话含义), etc. Examples like these are too numerous to mention one by on

20、e.3) Rigid Sentence StructureAs we know, the function of professional papers is to reveal creative research achievements and exchange latest research information. The arguments in professional papers will be convincing if they are presented concisely and concretely. A rigid sentence structure is the

21、refore reflected to meet this requirement.4) Formatted Elements（格式化内容）Though there are no set rules, a complete professional paper in its finished form usually has a regular format composed of the following elements: the title, author(s), affiliation(s), abstract, keywords, introduction, body of the

22、 paper (theoretical description including calculation, inference, reasoning, conclusion, etc. or experimental description including techniques, methods, materials, results and analysis, etc.), acknowledgments, appendices, references or bibliography, etc.4. Search for Professional PapersDifferent kin

23、ds of papers can be found from various sources:1) JournalsJournals are usually edited and published by learned societies or associations monthly, bi-monthly, or quarterly; for example, transactions, published by the American IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers), and circulated wid

24、ely in academic circles all over the world.2) Acta（学报）Acta are mainly published by institutions of higher learning. Their contributors are chiefly university professors and regional research scholars, including graduate students, in academic institutions.3) Bulletins, Circulars （通告）or Gazettes（公报）Su

25、ch bulletins are mainly edited and designated for the publication of briefs of research findings, preliminary results on some research programs, science news or notices of scientific seminars and conferences. Among the most famous of such publications are the Bulletin of the American Physical Societ

26、y and the Bulletin of American Mathematical Society, etc.4) Rapid CommunicationsThis kind of publication belongs to the public correspondence and letter-form publications. Their contributors are mainly scientific workers, professional technical information and data workers, editors of professional j

27、ournals and engineers. Rapid Communications enjoy popularity among professionals for being quick, direct and brief.5) ReviewsCommentary or summary articles are usually carried in specialized journals called Reviews, such as Comments on Modern Physics (published by the Physics Society under the Royal

28、 Academy of Sciences, U.K.) and Physical Review (published by the American Society of Physics, U.S.A.). The articles and papers published in such reviews are various in length and scope. They may include original research papers, comments and reviews on some authors and their papers or books, survey

29、 of current developments and research tendency analysis. Many famous international scholars, researchers and physicists are invited to work for and contribute to these reviews.6) ProceedingsProceedings are collections of papers of the corresponding academic conferences at which these papers or comme

30、ntaries are presented. Such proceedings are often published in the form of special issues, supplements or proceedings series. Category titles like “technical”, “scientific”, “academic”, “research”, “development”, etc. are usually put before the paper titles to help the readers in their choice.7) Dis

31、sertation Abstract InternationalDissertation Abstract International (DAI) is published monthly by University Microfilms International and includes abstracts of doctoral dissertations submitted to UMI by 550 participating institutions in North America and throughout the world.Each author-prepared abs

32、tract, up to 350 words in length, describes in detail the original research project on which the dissertation is based. Most of the approximately 35,000 dissertations published by UMI each year are abstracted in DAI and may be purchased in microform or as paper copies.DAI is published in three secti

33、ons:Section A-The Humanities and Social SciencesI-Communications and the ArtsII-EducationIII-Language, Literature and LinguisticsIV-Philosophy, Religion and TheologyV-Social SciencesSection B-The Sciences and EngineeringI-Biological SciencesII-Earth SciencesIII-Health and Environmental SciencesIV-Ph

34、ysical SciencesV-PsychologySection C-Worldwide (formerly European Abstracts) is published quarterly and includes abstracts of dissertations in all disciplines accepted for doctoral and post-doctoral degrees at institutions throughout the world. Most of these dissertations are not available from UMI;

35、 those which are for sale are also listed in Section A or B. Beginning with Volume 50 (Spring 1989), DAI-C was expanded to include institutions worldwide.8) Comprehensive Dissertation Index (CDI)Comprehensive Dissertation Indent (CDI) provides citations from 1861. It includes international coverage

36、of engineering and technological literature. Corresponds to the printed Engineering Index. There are monthly updates. Abstracts and keywords are provided. American Doctoral Dissertation is included.9) On line Access to DissertationOn line Access to Dissertation describes searching the Comprehensive

37、Dissertation Index database on DIALOG. General background and file content are presented. Numerous DIALOG search techniques are demonstrated and illustrated with actual examples. Notes the lack of in-depth subject indexing and stresses the need to search the title field. Other online sources of diss

38、ertations are briefly noted.Supplementary Readings on Dissertations, etc.1. A Diploma, the approximate equivalent of a bachelors degree in the United States, is awarded after a 4- to 5-year course of study. After an additional three years of study and the completion of a dissertation, a doctoral deg

39、ree is awarded. Further study and the completion of a second dissertation lead to a second doctorate, the Habilitation, which qualifies the recipient to teach in a university. The Habilitation degree is the approximate equivalent of a doctoral degree in the United States.2. Academic Degree is title

40、granted by a college or university, usually signifying completion of an established course of study. Honorary degrees are conferred as marks of distinction, not necessarily of scholarship; some, such as D. Litt. (doctor of letters), are generally honorary in the U.S.3. European Degrees In Germany an

41、d at most Continental universities, only the doctors degree is conferred, except in theology, in which the licentiate, or masters degree, is also presented. Granting of the doctorate is contingent upon the acceptance of a dissertation and the passing of examinations. The baccalaureate, or bachelors

42、degree, is usually not a university degree in Europe. In France, it is acquired by passing a state examination at the completion of secondary education; the only university-conferred baccalaureate is that awarded by the faculty of law.The University of Cambridge and the University of Oxford in Engla

43、nd grant the bachelors degree after the satisfactory completion of a 3-year course. Since the 18th century these universities have also given tripos, or examinations for honors. A candidate for graduation must pass all parts of the tripos for a particular subject in order to qualify for an honor deg

44、ree. The masters degree in arts or science is granted after a further period of residence and study and the payment of fees. Other English universities grant the masters degree only after a candidate has passed a series of examinations and presented an approved thesis. Various doctorates are awarded

45、 for distinguished scholarly work.4. U.S. Degrees The most commonly granted degrees in the U.S. are the BA, or bachelor of arts, and the BS, or bachelor of science, both given generally after the completion of a 4-year course of study and sometimes followed by a mark of excellence, such as cum laude

46、, with praise; magna cum laude, with great praise; or summa cum laude, with highest praise. The masters degree is granted after one or two years of postgraduate work and may require the writing of a thesis or dissertation. The doctorate requires two to five years of postgraduate work, the writing of

47、 a thesis, and the passing of oral and written examinations. In a recent year U.S. institutions of higher learning granted about 988,000 bachelors degrees, some 289,000 masters degrees, and 34,000 doctors degrees. The most familiar degrees are shown in the accompanying table.5. The academic dress wo

48、rn at degree-granting ceremonies consists of a long, black, full-cut gown, and a mortarboard, a stiff square-shaped cap with a tassel. The tassel is either black or of the color indicating the field of study, such as blue for philosophy, purple for law, or scarlet for theology. Some also wear a hood

49、 lined with colored silk indicating the graduates institution and decorated with velvet strips to designate the field of study. The bachelors gown, usually of cotton, has pointed sleeves. The masters gown, of cotton, silk, or worsted, has oblong sleeves. The doctors gown, generally of silk, has colo

50、red velvet facings down the front. The bell-shaped sleeves are decorated with three similarly colored velvet bands.6. In the United States, the research doctorate requires at least two or three additional years of study beyond the masters degree. Most doctoral students are expected to have a reading

51、 knowledge in two foreign languages. The candidate must also complete examinations and present a written thesis or dissertation. The doctoral thesis represents an original contribution to knowledge, and is a more detailed study of a research problem than that required for the masters degree.The Doct

52、or of Philosophy degree is the most important research doctorate and may include specialization in almost any academic subject. The Doctor of Education, Doctor of Medicine, and Doctor of Dental Surgery degrees represent advanced professional training. Students in such professions as medicine and den

53、tistry can obtain a doctors degree without first receiving a bachelors or masters degree. But most acquire a bachelor of science degree before entering medical training.Reflections and Practice (1)I. Topics for group discussion.1. How is a professional paper defined? What is your understanding of a

54、professional paper?2. How are papers classified? What are the similarities and differences between/among them?3. What are the linguistic features of professional papers?4. Where can you search for different kinds of papers from various sources?II. Fill in each space with one proper word and translat

55、e the sentences into Chinese.1. The National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) gopher allows you to search_ particular NBER working papers and reprints by key word(s), author, title, or paper number. The gopher contains a document outlining papers that are available_ anonymous FYP. Papers that are

56、not available, but outlined_ the NBER database, must be ordered_ . phone, fax, or e-mail. There is a directory in this gopher menu_ the Penn-World tables, which_ data such as population, gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, real consumption, government and investment shares of GDP per capita, ca

57、pital stock per worker, standard of living indexes, and many other data sets. There is also a link_ the Economics Working Papers Archive (papers not from the NBER) and a link_ search the NBER Macro-Economic Historical Database.2. The Cambridge University Engineering Departments FFP server features a

58、 wide_ of engineering-related documents, tutorials, abstracts, full-text dissertations, and programming code. A good place to start is the/pub/reports subdirectory. Read the message file first, and then browse Abstracts or the Index to_ the reports you want to pursue further. Much of the engineering work focuses_ speech analysis, ultrasound imaging, and robotics. If youre particularly interested in speech analysis, you may want to check_ the comp. speech FTP site thats also_ here. To access it, go to the fip:/