英语词汇学大纲

1、精选优质文档-倾情为你奉上English Lexicology Course Chapter One: Lexicology:1. Lexicology:Lexi = “word, phrase”;(Greek); Lexicos= “having to do with words”;Logos= “a department of language” (Greek);Lexicology: a branch of linguistics dealing with the vocabulary of a language and properties of words as the main u

2、nits of language2. Recognition of WordsWhat is a word?Jackson & Amvela, 2000:50-52: Four CharacteristicsThe word is an uninterruptible.unit.The word may consist of one or more morpheme.The word occurs typically in the structure of phrases.The word should belong to a specific word class or part o

3、f speech.Zhangweiyou(1997:7):A minimal free form of a languageA sound unityA unit of meaningA form that can be function alone in a sentenceThree senses of “word”:(1) A cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blanks·Phonological: / it is wLndfl /·Orthographical: It is won

4、derful. (Pause or Blank)·Phonological: / its wLndfl /·Orthographical: Its wonderful. (Liaison or Contracted form)(2). The common factor underlining a set of forms Noun: girl ; girlsVerbs: work; worked; works; working(3). A grammatical unit between morpheme and word group ( hierarchical ran

5、k)TextSentenceWord group/phraseWordMorphemeDefinition:(1)“The smallest of the linguistic units which can occur on its own in speech and writing.”(Longman Dictionary of Applies Linguistics: P 311.)(2)“A free form that does not consist entirely of lesser free forms is a word.”(Bloomfield, 1933.) (3)“A

6、 word is a minimal free form of a language that has given sound and meaning and syntactic function.”(Zhangweiyou,1997: 7)4. Classification of Words (1) Variable and invariable wordsWords can be classified according to their variability.Variable words: In variable words, one can find ordered and regu

7、lar series of grammatically different forms; one the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant.Follow matFollows matsFollowingFollowedInvariable words: those words that do not have inflective endingsSince; when; through; hello; (2) Grammatical and lexical wordsIn terms of the meaning

8、expressed by wordsGrammatical words (Function words, and empty words) are words that link its different parts together.Conjunctions; prepositions, articles; and pronounsLexical words (Content words, Full words) are words that carry the main content of a language Nouns; verbs; adjectives; adverbs(3)

9、Closed -class and open-classed words Closed class words: One whose membership is fixed and limited. New members are not regularly added.Conjunctions; prepositions, articles; and pronounsOpen-classed words: One whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimitedNouns; verbs; adjectives; adverbs (4

10、) Basic words and non-basic wordsBasic wordsCharacteristics:óAll national character(the most common things and phenomena of the world)natural phenomena; human body and relations; names of plants and animals; numerals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctionsóStabilityóProductivityóPo

11、lysemyóCollocability (set expressions; idiomatic usages; proverbial sayings and the like)a change of heart; after ones heart; a heart of gold; cry ones heart out; eat ones heart out; cross ones heart; heart and soul; with all ones heart; wear ones heart; Ones heart sinks within one; take someth

12、ing to heart; have ones heart in ones mouthNon-basic words a. Terminology(术语、术语学) :the words used in particular discipline and academic area·In medicine: photoscanning; hepatitis;·In mathematics: algebra; calculus;·In education: audiovisual; microteaching;·In music: symphony; orc

13、hestra;b. Jargon (行话、行业语): the specialized vocabulary by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades, and professions communicate the jargon of law; medical jargon·In business: ballpark figures=estimate; ·In horse-racing: hold him back=force a horse to run behind at the beginning of

14、 a race so as to reserve speed for the finish·In medicine: paranoid=suspicious, worried·In warfare: buster=bombPeople outside the circle have difficulty in understanding the words.c. Slang (俚语): the sub-standard languageCasual, very informal words, using expressive but informal words and e

15、xpressionsBeat it ! Rack off! (leave)Beaver (girl); smoky, bear (police); catch(talk to); holler(call); Roger(understand); X-rays(radar)d. Argot (隐语、黑话)Speech spoken and understood by only small peopleCan-opener (all-purpose key); dip (pick=pocket); persuader(dagger)e. Dialectal Words (方言词)Words spo

16、ken in one part of a country (regional dialect), or by people belonging to a particular social class(social dialect or sociolect)f. Archaism（古词语）: words that were once in common use but are now restricted only to special or limited use.Thou (you); Ye (plural you); thee (objective you); Wilt (will);b

17、rethren (brother); quoth (said);g. Neologism（新词）: Newly-created words or expressions or words that have taken on new meaningmicroelectronics = the branch of electronics dealing with integrated circuitsfuturology = a study that deals with future possibilities based on current trendsAIDS = acquired im

18、mune deficiency syndromeE- mail = electronic mail, the sending of messages via computer systemsinternet = an international computer network linking both business and private usersfreak out = withdraw from reality and society esp. by taking drugs.User-friendly (用户友好的)Software (软件)Floppy disk (软盘)(5)

19、Native words and Borrowed words(a) Native words: Anglo-Saxon words; amounting to roughly 5000-6000; mainstream of the basic word stockTwo features:Neutral in style; Native （common） Borrowed (formal)begin ( E ) commence ( F )brotherly ( E ) fraternal ( F ) kingly ( E ) regal ( F ) regal ( L )rise ( E

20、 ) mount ( F ) ascend ( L )Frequent in use(b) Borrowed wordsThe words are taken over from foreign languages. “The English language has vast debts. In any dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed.”(Encyclopedia American, 1980 Vol.10, p.423) ,Baugh (1978)talks of English vocabulary as “cosmopol

21、itan vocabulary”.Loanwords（借词）: A process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation, in some case, to the phonological system of the new language that they enterTea from Chinese; al freshco (in the open air)from ItalianLoanblend（混合借词）: A process in which part of the f

22、orm is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowedIn English, the first parts of the words “coconut” and “Chinatown” came from Spanish and Chinese respectively, but the second parts of the English origin.Loanshift（转移借词）: A process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is

23、native.“Bridge” is an English word, but when it referes to a type of card game, the meaning was borrowed from the Latian “ponte”The English word “artificial satellite” is also a case of loanshift to counteract the Russian “sputnik”Loan translation(翻译借词): A process in which each morpheme or word is t

24、ranslated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language.(a)Words translated according to the meaningMother tongue from lingua maternal (L)Black humour from humour noir (F)(b)Words translated according to the soundKulak from kyrak(Russ)Lama from lama(Tib)Denizens（同化词）: words borrowed early i

25、n the past and now are well assimilated into the English language. e.g.Port from portus(L); cup from cuppaL(L); pork from proc (F)Aliens(非同化词): Words that have retained their original pronunciation and spellingKowtow(CH); emir(Arab); intermezzo(IT); décor(F); (8) Word ClassTraditional view: Nou

26、n, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection, articleModern view:a. Particles: get by(to continue ones way of life); do up(fasten);look back(to remember)b. Auxiliaries: ÁNegation: I cant come ÁInversion: Is he coming?ÁCode: Ill come and so will Bill?

27、3;Emphasis: He has come.c. Pro-form (代替形式):Traditionally pronoun is the only word class that can function as a substitute for another item. In modern linguistics it refers to the closed sets of items that can be used to substitute for a nominal group or a single noun.ÁPro-adjective: Your pen is

28、 red. So is mine.ÁPro-verb: He knows English better than he did.ÁPro-adverb: He hopes he ll win and I hopes so too.ÁPro-locative: James hiding there, behind the door.d. Determiners: Words used before the noun acting as head of a noun phraseÁPredeterminer: all, both, half, double,

29、 twice, etc.ÁPostdeterminer: last, next, past, other,etc.ÁCentral determiner: this , that, these, those, your, neither, etc.Order: Predeterminer+ Central determiner+ Postdeterminer5. Characteristics of Words(1). Stability: The constituent parts of a complex word have little potentials for

30、rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. DisappointmentDis+appoint+ment(2). Relative uninterruptibilityNew elements are not to be inserted into a word when there are several parts in a word.Chairman ämanchair but in the fol

31、lowing The chairman looked at the audience.The audience looked at the chairman.(3). A minimal free formThe maximum free form (sentence) (Bloomfield)disagree(4) Stylistic features:6. Information of Words(1). Phonological informationBy the sequence of sounds that it is made up of , we know how to pron

32、ounce it. Desk(2). Morphological informationThe internal structure of a word, that is , how individual meaningful units are combined to form the word. Dislike(3) Syntactic informationHow to relate a certain word to the others in the sentence The word “roars” can be used in a sentence like “a lion ro

33、ars”(4). Semantic informationA word has a meaning or several meanings:Stone·a mall piece of rock（denotative meaning）·a grape stone（extended meaning/a hard seed inside some fruits）·She must have a heart of stone.（Somebody who shows no pity or sympathy）(5). Pragmatic informationIf we pu

34、t the word “cold” in different situations, it may convey different information depending upon the different contexts.a. Close the door.b. Put more clothes on.c. Turn on the air-conditiond. Leave here quickly.e. Chapter Two Morpheme1. Morpheme and morphsMorphology: the study of the internal structure

35、 of the words and the rules by which the words are formed. e.g.Morpheme; the smallest meaningful segments in a language Unlike- Un+likeMorph: the smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the level of parole. e.g. Work-works, working, worked2. Morpheme Classification（1）Lexical and gra

36、mmatical morphemesTo classify morphemes, let us begin by considering the following example.The dogs barked at Johns car.Broken down into morphemes, the sentence can be segmented as :the following:The + dog + s + bark +ed + at +John +s +carGrouped into two types: Lexical morphemes: which have meaning

37、 such as dog, bark, car, and Grammatical morphemes: which have little or no meaning of their own, usually expressing grammatical concepts such as definiteness（the）, case（the Johns）,tense（-ed）, and plurality（dogs）.The classification can be generalized as:Lexical morphemes （ free）MorphemesGrammatical

38、morphemes ( bound) Affix and baseAnother way to classify morphemes is to group them into affixes（or bound morphemes） and base/roots（or free morphemes）.InternationalizationNationthe central core of the word, which is called the base or root.-al, -ize and ation are affixes, which are the grammatical m

39、orphemesRoot/Base formA root is the basic form of a word that can not be further analyzed without total loss of identity.Crystal 1985A “root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed”Bauer 1983A morpheme which is the basic part of a wor

40、d and which may , in many languages, occur on its own. Three cases:(a) Roots may be joined to other rootshouse + hold, class +mate(b) Roots may take affixesmanly, coldness(c) Roots may take combing formsbiorhythmAffixes: A letter or sound, or group of letters, which is added to a word, and which cha

41、nges the meaning or function of the word(a)To the beginning of the a word （a prefix）“unkind”(b)To the end of a word（suffix）“kindness”(c)within a word（infix）“foot/feet”.Stem: That part of a word to which an inflectional affix is or can be added(a) a simple stem consisting of only one morpheme（root）“w

42、ork”(b) a root plus a derivational affix “work + er”(c)t wo or more roots “work + shop”friendships friendship friend stem rootworkworkerworkersworkworkshop-workshopsSuppletion: A type of irregularity in which there is a complete change in the shape of a word in its various inflected forms.Goodbetter

43、 bestTall-taller-tallest（2）Inflectional and derivationalAffixes may be inflectional or derivational, both being grammatical morphemes rather than lexical morphemes. Inflectional affixes express such features as plurality, case, tense, and aspect.There are eight inflectional morphemes in English and

44、all the other affixes are derivational.(a) Noun inflectional suffixPlural marker s : boysPossessive marker s : Toms(b) Verb inflectional suffixes3th person singular present s : runspast tense marker ed : waitedprogressive marker ing : speakingpast participle en : eaten(c) Adjective inflectional suff

45、ixescomparative marker er : faster superlative marker est :fastest（3）Free and Bound morphemesA free morpheme is one that can stand by itself as a word.Put, girl, cryA bound morpheme never occurs alone as a word and is always joined with other morphemes.De-, hood-, -edA summary of morpheme classifica

46、tion is schematized as follows:MorphemesLexical grammatical（free base） （bound affixes）content words function words inflectional derivational nouns conjunctions nounverbs articles verb prefixes infixes suffixes adjectives demonstratives adjectivesadverbs prepositionscomparatives3.FeaturesFeatures of

47、morphology can be summed up in the following phonological, syntactic and semantic aspects:（1）Phonological FeaturesSome morphemes may have one sound as their phonetic representation, e.g. the adjective suffix /i/ in stuff or / a / in asymmetrical.The numbers of morphemes and syllables in a word are n

48、ot correspondent with each other. For instance, cut is one morpheme which happens to consist of one syllable. Yet in cuts, the third person singular present morpheme s is not a syllable. So cuts is a one syllable word composed of two morphemesSometimes different morphemes have the same sound, as in

49、mouth （for eating） and mouth（of a river）. The same is true of affixes, e.g. noun inflectional suffixes can all sound alike. Of the derivational affixes, there is a prefix out-, as in outrun, with the meaning of better, greater, or more than and there is another prefix out- as in outpour or outside m

50、eaning out.Some morphemes, mostly irregular plural nouns and verbs, may not be phonetically represented. For instance, words like fish match words like books in the sense that fish is the plural form of the singular fish. The only distinction is that for the regular nouns like book, their plural mor

51、phemes are represented by he phoneme/s/ but, in contrast, fish, though plural in form, has no plural morpheme. In this case, the word fish can be considered as consisting of a base and an affix. But unlike the plural morphemes, this affix dose not appear in the plural fish. It is called zero affix a

52、nd symbolized as . So the plural affix has a zero allomorph in fish.（2）Syntactic FeaturesDifferent types of morphemes serve different function. Inflectional affixes and function words such as prepositions, articles, pronouns, and conjunctions indicate syntactic relations between different words in a

53、 sentence, e.g. the third person singular present morphemes in works shows agreement with the third person present singular subject of the verb.In the formation of a word, affixes, both inflectional and derivational, are not just put together at random. They must be arranged in sequence to form actu

54、al words. The affixation is a step-by-step process. In other words, they have a hierarchical internal structure, appearing in a rigidly sequential order: we find subconsciously, but not lysubconscious or sublyconscious. An inflectioal suffixes added to a word always marks the end step of word format

55、ion, i.e. comes last in a word. In terms of this relative order, inflectional suffixes follow derivational suffixes. The word pre-existences has the following order in its formation.Exist existence preexistence preexistencesRather thanExist existence existences preexistences Inflectional affixes do

56、not change the part of speech of bases as derivational affixes do.（3）Semantic FeaturesInflectional affixes do not change the meaning. For instance, a word such as walked is simply the past tense of walk and a word such as books is simply the plural of book. Neither walked nor books has any additional meaning. In contrast, derivational affixes change the meaning. For instance, substandard（derivational a