英语词汇学根据书本教材2011-1)

1、Introduction of WordsnThere is no egg in eggplant, nor ham in hamburger, Neither apple nor pine in pineapplenAnd while no one knows what is a hotdog, you can be pretty sure it isnt canine（犬类）nEnglish muffins(=hot muffns热松饼，美式早餐/英式午茶糕点) were not invented in England，Nor French-fries in France，(炸薯条); 再

2、如：nFrench windown落地窗，ntake French leaven不辞而别，nFrench greyn浅灰色nSweetmeats(糖果)； sweetbreads(甜面包）？nIn English we find that quicksand can work slowly, Boxing rings(拳击赛台)are squarenAnd why is that writers write, but fingers dont fing，grocers dont groce, and hammers dont ham?nIf the plural of tooth is tee

3、th, why isnt the plural of booth，beeth? One goose，two geese, So, one moose(驼鹿), two meese?(复数形式仍然是moose)；One mouse, two mice; One louse(虱子), two lice; One house? two hice?nIf teachers taught, why didnt preacher praught?(preached)nIf a vegetarian eats vegetables, what does a humanitarian eat?nWhy do

4、people recite at a play, and play at a recital? Ship by truck or car and send cargo by ship?(动词与动词的功能差异；为什么演话剧时人们要朗诵，而在独奏会上却要演奏：polysemy)nHave noses that run and feet that smell?nPark on driveways and drive on parkways?n美国的房子周围有driveway(入户的车道)：私人车道；parkway大路，干道)nHow can a slim chance and a fat chanc

5、e be the same, while a wise man and a wise guy are opposites?nWhen a house burns up, it bums down.(方位稳喻)nYou fill in a form by filling it out. (collocation)nAnd an alarm clock goes off by going onnYou get in and out of a car, yet you get on and off a bus.nIf there is a phrase of “gold bar”, then wha

6、t does “gold brick” mean?nAnd why, when I wind up my watch, I start it, But when 1 wind up this essay, I end it?（一词多义）nLexicology is the part of linguistics, dealing with the vocabulary of a language and the properties of words as the main units of language. nVocabulary means the sum of all the word

7、s in the language. nGood knowledge of the description of the vocabulary, rules of word-formation, origin and history of words helps to guess and remember the meaning of new-learned words, to master the standards of their usage, and to prevent mistakes.nTwo ways to study lexicology: 1) Diachronic app

8、roach : 历时语言学 2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学 n1. The definition of a word comprises the following points:n(1) a minimal free form of a language; (2) a sound unity; (3) a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. nA word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given s

9、ound and meaning and syntactic function.n词是语音、意义和语法特点三者统一的整体。词又是语句的基本结构单位。 (P.1)nA fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning (both lexical and grammatical meaning), capable of performing a given syntactic function.n词，今指语言组织中的基础单位，能独立运用，具有声音、意义和语法功能。辞海1984，

10、上海辞书出版社 nIntroduction of Naturalist and Conventionalist nThe difference between the two schools lies in the belief that sound has or hasnt direct or necessary connection with meaning.nThe nationalists think the sound must be an echo of the sense.（音必须成为义的回声)nThe conventionalists hold that there is no

11、 intrinsic logical connection or relationship between the sound and the meaning except onomatopoeia （拟声词）because:n1)代表同一意义的词在不同的语言（包括同一语言）中有时具有不同的语音外壳。n(1)His beloved friend has breathed his last(咽气了)n(2)His dear friend has passed away(与世长辞)n(3)His close friend has died(死J，)n(4)His old guy has kicke

12、d the bucket(翘辫子)n(5)His old friend has abandon the worldjoin the choir invisiblego to Nirvanapay the debt of nature(谢世/归寂去极乐世界了结尘缘)n2)代表不同意义的词可以具有相同的语音外壳。(scale n. 鱼鳞，天平，标度；v.攀登) (p.2)n3)另外也需注意，代表同一意义的词在不同的语言中有时具有近似的语音外壳。例如：n鸭叫：quack英；couin法；qua qua意；quak quak德n猫 meaw/miaow咪/喵；鸽子：coo-咕咕；牛：moo哞n狼：ho

13、wl嚎nOnomatopoeia （拟声词）（拟声词）nDefinition: onomatopoeic words are echoic words whose sound reflects the sense.nGingle铃声铃 pat轻拍声轻拍nPing-pong乒乓声乒乓球nCuckoo布谷鸟叫声布谷鸟nDrum鼓声鼓 bomb爆炸声炸弹nCrash-轰隆声-猛撞,崩溃,破产,垮台 nE.g. The thunder crashed overhead.n雷声在头顶隆隆作响。nThe boiling water cracked the glass.n滚烫的开水使玻璃杯炸裂了。nOnom

14、atopoeia also exists in Chinese:n请帮我“咔嚓”一张。n两人都同时“哦”了一声。n1) Realtionship between mening and conceptnWord concept referent（词是通过概念来反映客观事物或现象的）nPolysemy（一词多义）可表示为：wordConcept 1Concept 2Concept 3Referent 1Referent 2Referent 3Synonyms（同义字） 可表示为：Word 1 + word 2 + word3 Concept Referent指示物nCrane n. 1.一种长脖子

15、鸟-鹤n 2.一种形似鹤的机械-吊车nGlad, delight and happy是来自不同语源的同义词，属于同一个概念，指的是同一种情绪与状态。nPlease compare the following:nHe is a father of two girls (daughters)nHie is over 30 now. Why not have a girl (girlfriend)?nIll have a girl (maid) help you.n1)词是构成词汇的基本要素。它们之间是个体与整体的关系；n2）词项是词典的组成单位，包含词的读音、词性、词义，语义特征和句法特征等；(P

16、.4)n3）Development of English Vocabularyn (1) - Old English (AD 450-1150) Anglo-Saxon as Old English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50, 000 to 60, 000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modern German. n (2) - Middle English (1150-1500) Although there were borrowings from Lati

17、n, the influence on English was mainly Germanic. Between 1250 and 1500 about 9000 words of French origin poured into English. Seventy-five percent of them are still in use today. n n(3) - Modern English (1500-up to now) Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England. Early (1500-

18、1700) and Late (1700-up to the present) Modern English.nFrom the 16th century onward, English borrowed words from an increasing number of languages, For example, fromnFrench: attach, caf and so on;nItalian (mainly in the fields of music, art and architecture): concert, duet（二重奏）, piano, soprano（女高音）

19、, solo, tenor（男高音）; model, bust（半身像）, studio; dome, balcony and so on;nSpanish: armada（无敌舰队）, cargo, vanilla, cocoa and cigar;nPortuguese: caste（种姓） and pagoda（塔）;nGerman: bismuth（铋）, cobalt（钴）, nickel and zinc;nDutch: dock, freight and keel（平底船）; nRussian: vodka, troika（三驾马车）, ruble and tsar（沙皇）;nA

20、ustralian: boomerang（自食其果）, kangaroo and dingo;nArabic: sugar, sultan（苏丹） and alcohol;nIndian: coolie（苦力）, cashmere and khaki（卡其布）;nChinese: tea, typhoon and yamen;nJapanese: kimono （和服）and tycoon（大亨）;nAfrican: gorilla （大猩猩）and zebra（斑马）.nThe rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary (especiall

21、y after the World War II) and its causesn 1. Marked progress of science and technology: ne.g. Words used in connection with the nuclear bomb: chain reaction, radioactivity, fall-out（辐射尘）; clean bomb, overkill, neutron bomb and medium-range ballistic missiles （中程弹道导弹）and so on.n2. Socio-economic, pol

22、itical and cultural changes: ne.g. New social habits and new living conditions: credit card, house sitter, microwave oven, instant noodle, supermarket etc.nDrug addiction: upper (a stimulant drug), downer (a depressant drug)nSome subculture: hippie, yuppie, gay, lesbian女同性恋 etc.nWomens Liberation Mo

23、vement: Ms, chairperson, spokeswomen, saleswoman, feminism, malechauvinism, and sexism n3. The influence of other cultures and languages: ne.g. discotheque from French, sputnik（斯波尼克人造卫星） from Russian, mao tai from Chinese and so on nTo sum up, the development of science, the rapid changes in society

24、, the receptive（善于接受的） and flexible nature of English with regard to the influence of other cultures and languages-all these have resulted in a dramatic increase in vocabulary, a growth which in turn contributes to the richness and resourcefulness of the English language.nPart One Morphological Stru

25、cturen1. MorphemesnThe morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.(p.10)nWhat is usually considered a single word in English may be composed of one or more morphemes:nOne morpheme-nationnTwo morphemes-nation-alnThree morphemes-nati

26、on-al-izenFour morphemes-de-nation-al-ize（使非国有化）nMore than four morphemes-de-nation-al-iz-ationn2. Free morphemes and bound morphemes nA free morpheme自由形位(=实义形位） is one that can be uttered alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme. nA free morpheme is a word, in traditiona

27、l sense. Man, faith, read, write, red are free morphemes. nA bound morpheme粘附形位（=语法形位 =屈折形位）cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance; it must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound, for instance un- in unkind, -ly in happily and re- in receive, or the “past-tense” morpheme in w

28、ords like work + ed and type + d, or the “plural” morpheme in words like dog + s and box + es.nInflectional elements and affixes are bound morphemes.n3. Allomorphs (形位变体，语形位变体，语词词素变体）素变体）n “An allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned（受制约） by position or adjoining sounds” (W

29、ebsters New World Dictionary of the American Language). nE.g. the inflectional morpheme (屈折形位）(e)s of books, pigs, horses has the same meaning “more than one,” yet it has three different phonological forms: /-s, -z, iz/. nThe allomorphs ion/ -tion/ -sion/ -ation are the positional variants of the sa

30、me suffix. Verbs ending with the sound /t/ usually take ion (as invent, invention); verbs ending with consonants other than /t/, take tion (as in describe, description); verbs ending in ify and ize take ation (as in justify, justification; modernize, modernization); verbs ending in d, -de, or mit, t

31、ake sion (as in expansion, decision, omission).nAllomorphs also occur among prefixes. Their form then depends on the first letter of the word to which they will be added. nA prefix like im- occurs before p, b, or m (e.g. imperfect, imbalance, immobile); its allomorphs are ir- before r (e.g. irrespon

32、sible); il- before l (e.g. illogical); in- before all other consonants and vowels (e.g. inflexible, inexcusable); im-, ir- and il- are thus allomorphs of the morpheme in-.n 4. Roots and affixes n Alternatively, morphemes may be divided into roots (or root morphemes) and affixes (or affixational morp

33、hemes). n1） Roots: A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.nE.g. work, workable, worker, worked, and working: in each word the root is work n(a) Free roots: In English, many roots are free morphemes, such as boy, moon, walk, black (i.e. th

34、ey can stand alone as words). A word consisting of one free root (or one morpheme) is a simple word.n(b) Bound roots: Quite a number of roots derived from foreign sources, especially from Greek and Latin, belong to the class of bound morphemes, such as tain（包括 ten, tin= hold，表示“拿住” ）in words like co

35、ntain（con 全部+tain-全部拿住-包容）detain, （de 下+tain-拿住，拿下-拘留） sustain （sus 下面+tain-在下面拿住撑住, or retain （re 回+tain-拿回来-保留）, and ceive in conceive, deceive or receive.nSo bound roots are not words, and so are not free morphemes; they cannot exist on their own. n5. Affixes: Affix is a “collective term for type

36、 of formative（构词要素）（构词要素） that can be used only when added to another morpheme.” nAffixes, therefore, are considered bound morphemes. They may be divided into inflectional and derivational types.n(a) Inflectional affixes (or inflectional morphemes) （屈（屈折词缀或屈折词素）折词缀或屈折词素） : nAn inflectional affix ser

37、ves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. It does not form a new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to another word. Nor does it change the word-class of the word to which it is affixed.nInflectional affixes have only their particular gr

38、ammatical meaning, as with the plural morpheme s and the past morpheme ed (or their variants). They can only be affixed to words of the same word class; that is, the plural morphemes are affixed to nouns only, and ed to verbs only. n(b) Derivational affixes (or derivational morphemes)（派生词缀或派生形位）（派生词

39、缀或派生形位）:nThey are so called because when they are added to another morpheme, they “derive” a new word. A few examples of derivational affixes are: re+write, mini+car, super+market, modern+ize, mean+ness, work+er.nMany derivational affixes have a specific lexical meaning, for instance: -ism means “do

40、ctrine or point of view” as in socialism.nQuite a number of other derivational affixes have more than one meaning. e.g.: the affix de- means “1. to undo what has been done, to reverse the action of: decentralize, decode 2. to remove: debone 3. to reduce: devalue 4. (esp. in grammar) coming from some

41、thing else: a deverbal noun（从动词派生出来的名词）.n6. prefixes and suffixesn1）Derivational morphemes or derivational affixes are commonly subdivided into prefixes and suffixes. Affixes before the word are called prefixes (as in supermarket); those after are called suffixes (as in friendship).n2）Both prefixes

42、and suffixes may be grouped according to:n（1）. Their linguistic origin: nA. Native affixes are those that existed in the OE period or were formed from OE words, such as un-, mis-, be-, out-, over-, -ness, -dom, -hood, -ly, and er. nB. Foreign affixes came as a part of loan words from Latin, Greek, F

43、rench, or other languages. Examples: ab-(L), bi-(L), dis-(L), re-(L), kilo-(Gk), poly-(Gk), mal-(F), -ic(Gk), -ism(Gk), -ist(Gk), -able (F), and ize(F).n（2）. Their productivity: Affixes (such as re-, un-, -able, -ize) are called productive or living when they can be used to form new words.n3） Those

44、that are no longer used to form new words are termed dead or unproductive. Examples of dead affixes are: for- as in forget, forgive and forbid; with- as in withdraw, withhold and withstand, and ant or ent as in servant, different, etc.nSummary:n1.Words are composed of morphemes. A morpheme, the mini

45、mal meaningful unit of the English language, possesses both sound and meaning. An allomorph is any of variant forms of a morpheme.n2. Morphemes may be classified as free or bound. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself as a complete utterance, while a bound morpheme cannot exist on its own;

46、 it must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound.n3. Morphemes can also be classified into roots and affixes. A root carries the main component of meaning in a word. Roots can be free or bound morphemes. Free roots can stand alone as words and provide the language with a basis for the

47、 formation of new words. Bound roots cannot appear as words in modern English, although they were once words, nor can they be used to form new words.n4. Affixes are bound morphemes, because they are used only when added to other morphemes. Affixes are classified into inflectional and derivational af

48、fixes. The former are related to grammar only. Derivational affixes are subdivided into prefixes and suffixes, which are related to the formation of new words. Roots, prefixes and suffixes are the building blocks with which words are formed.n5. On morphemic level, words can be classified into simple

49、, complex and compound words, according to the number and type of morphemes they are composed of.n6. Morphemes are important in the word-building process because the two most central and productive word-formation process, compounding and affixation, are related to morphemes: the former is a combinat

50、ion of free morphemes, the latter is the addition of bound morphemes to free ones.nWord-formation is a process of creating new words by means of existing elements and according to the patterns and rules of a given language. nDerivationnCompoundingnConversionnQuantitative changes (blending, clipping,

51、 etc.)nDerivation is a kind of word-formation when a new word is formed by adding a derivational morpheme (usually suffix or prefix) to the root. nPrefixation is a kind of word-formation when a new word is formed by adding a prefix to the root.nSuffixation is a kind of word-formation when a new word

52、 is formed by adding a suffix to the root. nPrefixes modify the lexical meaning of the root; therefore the simple word and its prefixed derivative usually belong to the same part of speech. The group of class-changing prefixes is rather small, e.g.:n be- adj. or n. -v. becalm, belittle, befriendn de

53、- n.-v. deform, debug , defrostn en- n.-v. enslave, endangern un- n.-v. unleash（解开皮带）, unearthn anti- n.-adj. anti-war, anti-carbon防积炭的n inter- n.-adj. inter-state, inter-laboratoryn post- n.-adj. postwar, postliberationn pre- n.-adj. prewar,preplantn1. Negative prefixes give negative, reverse or op

54、posite meaninga- (apolitical不关心政治的asexual无性的)de- (destabilize动摇, declassify消除密级)dis- (disenfranchise剥夺公民权, disinvest减少投资)il- (before l: illegal)/ im-(before p,b,m: imperceptible感觉不到的)/ in-(inadequate)/ ir-(before r: irresponsible)non- (non-economic, non-profit, nonparty, noncolor, nontaste, nonevent

55、, nonnovel非传统小说)un- (unacceptable, undemocratic, unbook买来送人而非自己读的毫无价值的书, unperson政治上失宠的官员)n2. Non-negative prefixesa. Degree, measures or size: hyper（过多）- (hypercreative, hyperdevoted); over超过- (overestimate, overcompensate); semi半- (semiskilled, semi-annual); super超级- (super-dominant, supercharged)

56、; ultra极端- (ultra-conservative, ultra-secret)b. Repetition or possibility: em-(before p,b,m)/en- 使处于某种状态(embark, enclose)c. Time, place, order relation: ex-外，以前的(ex-employer, ex-tenant); inter-交互(inter-office, inter-government); post-在 后(post-budget, post-election); pre- (pre-delivery, pre-budget)d.

57、 Number and numeral relation: bi- (bilateral, bilingual); multi- (multi-dimensional, multi-media); uni- (unilateral, unisex)e. Attitude, counteraction: anti- (anti-EEC, antiestablishment反既成或正统，antibody); auto- (autodial, autonomy); counter-反向(countercharge反诉，反攻, counteroffer); pro- 赞成(pro-business,

58、pro-liberal)f. Pejoration: mis- (miscalculation, mismanage处置不当); pseudo- (pseudo-random假随机, pseudo-democratic)nSuffixation is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or a combining form to the base, and usually changing the word-class of the base. e.g. boy-boyish. But there are exceptions: e.

59、g. boy-boyhood.n1 Noun-forming suffixesn-age (passage, marriage, mileage); n-ance/-ence附于动词后构成名词或由-ant 结尾的形容词化出名词(assistance, predominance, correspondence); n-dom地位；职务；状况；领域； (freedom, kingdom)n-ee 受动者受动者 (employee, referee, absentee); n-eer/er 与 相关的人(engineer, profiteer, manager);n-ess附在名词后表示女性、阴性(

60、manageress, heiress) n-ist (economist) n-hood 状况、身份(adulthood, singlehood) n-ing行为、状态、情况 ，技法，材料等building, meaning, packing, tubings)-ion/-sion/-tion/-ition/-ation表示状态、行为、结果 (production, conclusion, realization) -ism 信念、状态(consumerism保护消费者利益运动, perfectionism至善论) -ment (agreement, investment) -ness 附在