国际建筑合同的文化思考

1、Cultural Considerations in International Construction Contracts国际建筑合同的文化思考Edwin H. W. Chan1 and Raymond Y. C. Tse2埃德温·W·扩散和雷蒙德Y.C. tse2Abstract: International construction projects involve multinational participants from different political, legal, economic, and cultural backgrounds. As on

2、e of the major issues affecting the management of international construction projects, culture deserves wide research.This paper aims to establish a valid groundwork for further research on the impact of cultural issues on contractual arrangements; conictcausation, and the selection of dispute resol

3、ution mechanisms for international construction projects. The paper reviews the characteristics of international construction activities and discusses the cultural context. It sets the research background for disseminating the ndings of two surveys, carried out in Hong Kong and in London and Sydney.

4、 The study identies the important features expected for the contract of international construction projects and ascertains their signicance to further in-depth research.摘要：国际工程项目涉及不同的政治，法律，经济和跨国的参与者，文化背景。作为一个影响国际工程项目管理的主要问题，值得广泛的文化研究。本文的目的是在文化问题上的契约安排的影响的进一步研究奠定基础和有效因果关系，并对国际工程项目的争端解决机制的选择。本文综述的特点国际

5、建筑活动，探讨文化语境。它传播的结果集的研究背景两个调查，在香港、伦敦和悉尼进行了。研究发现的重要特征，预计合同国际工程项目并确定其意义合同研究的进一步深入。DOI: 10.1061/( ASCE) 0733-9364 (2003) 129:4 (375)CE Database subject headings: Contracts; Dispute resolution; Hong Kong; International factors; Construction industry.该数据库的主题标题：合同；纠纷解决；香港；国际因素；建筑业Introduction引言Within the g

6、eneral trend of globalization, worldwide economic cooperation and technology transfer are common practice. Inter-national construction projects are just one of the activities that involve multinational participants from different political, legal,economic, and cultural backgrounds. According to Lath

7、am 1994 , project procurement and construction disputes are two of the major concerns in the construction industry. Conict and disputes are causing major damage to the industry.在经济全球化的大趋势下，世界经济合作和技术转移是常见的做法。国际建设项目只是其中的一个活动它涉及不同政治法律，经济，文化背景的跨国参与者，根据Latham1994观点，项目采购和施工纠纷是两个在建筑行业关注的主要问题。冲突和罢工都将引起业内的重大

8、损害。The work of researchers such as Turin 1972 , Aniekwu and Okpala 1988 , and Ofori 1984, 1991 show that similar problems are noted worldwide and that the less-developed or developing countries are the worst hit by the problems. Research has been conducted to prevent and resolve construction dispute

9、s in specic countries Vorster 1993; Diekmann and Girard 1995; Cheung 1998; Kumaraswamy and Yogeswaran 1998 . More generally, Simon 1987 argues that to understand real decision making, utility maximization is neither a necessary nor a sufcient condition for the conclusion reached. The action comes fr

10、om empirical assumptions, including assumptions about how people view their world.这项工作的研究者如Turin1972，aniekwu和Okpala1988，和Ofori1984 .1991都表明，类似的问题被指出在世界范围内，并指出在欠发达和发展中国家的问题是最严重的。已经有研究进行预防和解决施工争议在特殊的国家，如沃斯特1993迪克曼和吉拉德1995；1998约盖斯瓦兰库马拉斯瓦米和1998香港。更主要的是，西蒙1987认为了解真正的决策判断的效用最大化，既不是必要的也不是充分的为达成结论的条件。行动来自于经

11、验假设，包括假设人们如何查看他们的世界。Although concerns about cultural issues seem to be discussed widely in construction, their formal analysis is infrequent. Research is necessary to minimize the problems in the global context. This paper disseminates the research ndings of two sets of questionnaires carried out by

12、 the rst writer as part of an ongoing research study, one conducted in Hong Kong during 1998, and the other in London and Sydney during 1999.虽然关于文化问题的关注似乎被广泛的讨论应用于建筑，其正式的分析是罕见。这样的研究以减少全球背景下的问题是必要的。本文发布研究结论对于两组问卷调查的。由第一作家作为正在进行的部分研究性学习进行的，一个在香港进行在1998，和另一个在伦敦和悉尼在1999。The aim of this paper is to estab

13、lish a valid foundation for further research on the impact of cultural issues on contractual arrangements, conict causation, and selection of dispute resolution mechanisms for international construction projects. Following this introduction, the second section reviews the characteristics of internat

14、ional construction activities and discusses the cultural contextual factors that contribute to conict and difculties in the management of the international construction projects.The third section introduces the research methodology and data collection of the two surveys, the fourth section explains

15、the data analysis, and the fth presents the key observations of the research results and makes recommendations for further study in this area. The paper ends with a general conclusion.本文的目的是建立一个有效的基础为了在文化合作安排问题上的影响的进一步研究，控制因果关系，以及 国际工程项目机制 纠纷解决的选择。遵循 这个介绍，第二部分回顾国际建筑活动的特征和讨论有助于控制 文化语境的

16、因素，和在国际工程项目管理的不同。第三部分介绍了本文的研究方法和这两个调查收集的数据，第四部分解释了数据分析，并提出了第五部分关键的观察在搜索结果中并对进一步研究 这个地区 的建议。本文的最后是一个一般性的结论。1、Associate Professor, Dept. of Building and Real Estate, The HongKong Polytechnic Univ., Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR.E-mail: .hk1、副教授，建筑及房地产系，香港香港理工大学，红磡，九龙，香港特区。电子邮件

17、：.hk2、Professor, International City University of America, Asian House, 1 Hennessy Rd., Hong Kong SAR. E-mail: rtseicua.us2、教授，国际大学城的美国，亚洲的房子，1轩尼诗道，香港。电子邮件：rtseicua.usNote. Discussion open until January 1, 2004. Separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers. To extend

18、 the closing date by one month, a written request must be led with the ASCE Managing Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on February 6, 2001; approved on July 1, 2002. This paper is part of the Journal of Construction Engineering and Manage-ment, V

19、ol. 129, No. 4, August 1, 2003. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9364/2003/4-375381/$18.00.注意讨论开放直到一月 1号，2004年。独立的讨论必须 提交个人文件。延长截止日期一个月，书面请求必须提交与中国土木工程学会执行主编。这个课题的底稿提交被评论，并且可能在6日出版，2001；被批准在7月1号，2002年。这文件是杂志建筑工程与管理的一部分。第129号4，8月1，2003年 ASCE ，ISSN 0733 - 9364 /2003年4 

20、;- 6 375381 /美元18.00International Construction ActivitiesCharacteristics and Problems 国际建筑活动的特点和存在的问题International construction projects are those in which the contractor, the lead consultant, or the employer is not of the same domicile,and at least one of them is working outside his

21、or her country of origin （Stebblings 1998）. The construction industry is complex and multidimensional, and to improve this situation, the major construction projects in developing countries are often carried out in joint ventures with construction companies from developed countries. International co

22、llaboration can be of particular benet to less-developed and developing areas. Transglobal economic developments offer an opportunity to develop products using the most up-to-date expertise and knowledge in a cost-effective manner （Clark and Ip 1999）. International projects are normally fast paced b

23、ut require a longer time span, and more parties are involved. Collaboration between the concerned parties requires clear project denition, and each set of objectives under the denition may be subject to changes as the project evolves.国际建筑项目是指那些承包商，首席顾问，或雇主不在相同的住所，他们中至少一人在他或她的国家起源的工作（stebblings 1998）

24、。建筑业是复杂的多维体，并为了改善这一状况，主要在发展中国家的建设项目往往是进行来自发达国家的建筑合资企业。国际合作特别有益于欠发达和发展中地区。环球经济的发展提供了一个机会，去开发的产品使用在一个具有成本效益的方式下，用最新的技术和知识（克拉克和IP 1999）。国际项目通常快节奏，但需要较长的时间跨度，和涉及多人。有关各方之间的合作需要清晰的项目定义，并且在定义下每一组的目标都可能会随着项目的发展变化。Parties to international projects are also concerned with the clarity of local laws and the int

25、erpretation of those contracts governed by local laws. Transglobal collaboration calls for greater cultural understanding and sensitivity in terms of personnel management by the concerned parties. Human problems are involved,such as language, communication, and the understanding of cultural differen

26、ces. It is generally acknowledged that the contextual environment of a country or region also inuences the construction industry of each jurisdiction. Based on previous work by other researchers, Sheath, Jaggar, and Hibberd （1994） compiled a set of environmental inuences associated with construction

27、 and a list of variables under each of the inuence factors. The variables have been used to study the impact of these contextual factors on the choice of a project procurement system. Such a contextual research approach can be adopted and elaborated for studying the effect of culture on disputes in

28、international construction projects.国际项目各方关注的是地方法规的透明度和 这些合同遵守当地法律的解释 。环球国际合作的呼吁更大的文化理解和灵敏度在人事管理方面通过当事人。人类所涉及的问题也被包括，如语言，通信，和文化差异的理解。众所周知，一个国家或地区的周边环境也在影响每个司法管辖区的建筑业。基于前人的相关研究，Sheath，Jagga，和Hibberd（1994）编制的一套在环境影响下的建筑关联文件和一系列在相关环境下影响因素的变量列表。变量被用来研究这些因素对项目采购制度选择的影响。这样的情境研究的方法可以采用，并阐述了研究文化对国际建设工程纠纷的影响

29、。Cultural Context文化语境The term culture has wide connotations in anthropology and ethnography. Its meaning is not clearly defined, and even anthropologists do not agree on one clear and precise definition. Definitions differ greatly and are dependent on the theoretical perspectives of those who offer

30、them. In the management literature, Hofstede (1984)defines culture as the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one human group from others. Culture, in this sense, includes systems of values and values are the building blocks of culture. In the context of constructio

31、n management education regarding culture, loose more (1999)states that it is now accepted that a culture of a society is its shared values, understandings, assumptions and goals learned from earlier generations. It results in common attitudes, codes of conduct and expectations that guide behavior. 术

32、语文化在人类学和人种学有广泛的内涵。其含义是不明确的，甚至是人类学家不在一个明确和准确的定义达成一致。定义有很大的不同，依赖于那些为他们提供的理论视角。在管理文献中，霍夫斯泰德1984年将文化定义为“区别不同的人类群体的其他成员心灵的集体编程s文化，在这个意义上，包括价值体系和是文化的基石的价值观。”在1999年工程管理教育更宽松的文化语境下指出：“从更早的一代学会的价值观，理解，假设和目标是我们现在所接受的一种社会文化。它导致的结果是用共同的态度，行为规范和期望来指导行为。”Tso (1999),an anthropologist and designer, suggested some p

33、arameters that could help to delineate the playing fields for the concept of culture, but warned that the definition will shift within the boundaries of the parameters. She suggested that one will find the essence of the term culture within the following fields: culture describes the social system c

34、reated by a group of people; it starts from the moment that a few people get together regularly and begin to establish norms and rules through which they will interact and communicate with each other and maintain order; it is about patterns of meaning; it is about shared beliefs, values, perspective

35、s, and worldviews; it is about shared behavior, practices, rules, and rituals; it is not limited to groupings by race or ethnicity, but can describe a sub-culture within a society designers, for instance; it is often associated with language and communication; it is viewed as a mental or cognitive c

36、onstruct, created in the minds of people; it is learned; it can be found in materials: objects, artefacts, clothing, artwork, and so forth; and it can emanate from social institutions and structures, such as governments, economies, and legal systems, as well as geographic and environmental factors.曹

37、，人类学家和设计师，1999年提出了一些参数，可以帮助划定为文化理念的领域，但警告说，该定义将在参数的范围内移动。她建议，将在以下领域找到长期的文化本质：“文化描述了一群人创造的社会制度，从那一刻起，一些人经常聚在一起，开始建立规范和规则，通过那些他们可以相互影响和相互沟通和维持秩序；这是关于模式的意义；这是共同的信念，价值观和世界观这是关于共享行为，实践，规则，和仪式；它不受种族或民族群体的限制；但可以描述在一个社会的设计师下的亚文化，例如；它往往是与语言和交流相关的；它被视为一种心理或认知结构，在人们的头脑中创造；据了解；它可以发现在材料：对象，工艺品，服装，工艺品，等等，它可以来自社会制

38、度和社会结构，如政府，经济，法律制度，以及地理和环境因素。”Today, anthropologists take a relative position toward culture, believing that no one culture is better or worse than another. In this paper, we discuss problems related to culture as the word is understood by every man in the street without elaboration. It is a very ge

39、neral concept within the fields described by Tso (1999). 今天，人类学家对文化的相对位置，相信没有一个文化比其他文化“更美好”或“'更糟糕”。 在本文中，我们讨论相关的文化这个词是在街上没有一个男人可以阐述清楚的问题。这是在描述TSO的领域（1999）一个很笼统的概念。In international construction projects, any party involved must be cross-culturally competent. To be competent, Trompenaars and Willi

40、ams (1999) claim that the transcultural manager should be aware of managing in seven dimensions: universalism versus particularism, individualism versus communitarism, specific versus diffuse, neutrality versus affectivity, inner directed versus outer directed, achieved versus ascribed status, and s

41、equential versus synchronic time. These complex psychological and behavioral dimensions deserve in-depth study in the context of the international construction industry. Construction professionals involved with international projects should at least be able to recognize the expectations and behavior

42、 of others. Cultural issues are expected to contribute to conflicts among parties to an international project and increase difficulties in the management of the project (Fellow and Hancock 1994).Without understanding there can be no friendship. If one wishes to understand a people one must identify

43、oneself with them. One must study their language, customs and culture . and they will be ones friends (Broster1976).在国际工程项目中，当事人必须跨文化能力。为了能够胜任，Trompenaars和Williams（ 1999）声称，跨文化管理者应该意识到管理的七个维度：普遍性与特殊主义，普遍主义与特殊主义，个人主义与社群主义，特异性和弥漫性，中立性和情感性，内部和外部的指示，实现与赋予的地位，和顺序与同步时间。在国际建筑业的背景上这些复杂的心理和行为方面值得深入研究。建筑专业人员参

44、与国际项目，至少应该能够认识到别人的期望和行为。文化问题将有助于引起一个国际项目各方之间的冲突，并在项目管理方面增加了困难。（研究员和汉考克1994）。“没有理解就没有友谊。如果你希望了解一个人必须将自己与他们一样看待。你必须学习他们的语言，习俗和文化将他们当做自己的朋友”（布罗斯特1976）。Dispute Resolution Processes争议解决程序With dispute resolution processes becoming international and unrestricted by frontier, legal system, or national cultu

45、re, cultural unity is disrupted. International arbitration is said to be a true clash of legal cultures (Shilston and Hughes 1997; Cremades 1998). To interact with such a legal culture, traditional arbitration practices have to be modified to incorporate a proactive, flexible, and amicable (nonadver

46、sarial) process. In awareness of this, practitioners and commentators have been proposing various schemes and innovative practices (Cremades 1998; Uff 1998; Shilston and Hughes 1997). New legislation such as the Arbitration Act in the U.K. and the Arbitration Ordinance in Hong Kong have been promulg

47、ated to reflect this need. The practice of combined mediation and arbitration adopted in many countries such as China has aroused much interest （Chan 1997）. Such a line of thinking leads to fusion of amicable and judicialized alternative dispute resolution （ADR）.随着争议解决程序成为国际化和不受边境限制，法律制度，或民族文化，文化团结都

48、被打乱了。国际仲裁据说是法律文化的一个'真正的冲突'' （Shilston and Hughes 1997; Cremades 1998）。与这样的法律文化互动，传统的仲裁实践需要进行修改，以纳入积极主动，灵活，友好的气氛下的过程。在意识到这一点，从业者和评论家已提出多种方案和创新实践（Cremades 1998; Uff 1998; Shilston and Hughes 1997。新的立法，如英国仲裁法及仲裁条例在香港已公布，以反映这方面的需求。联合调解和仲裁的做法在例如中国的许多国家被采纳引起了人们很大的兴趣（陈1997）。这样的思路导致融合的友好和“司法化”替代

49、性纠纷解决机制（美国预托证券）The good that a dispute resolution mechanism will do depends on the person using it. The balancing act is dependent upon the neutral party appointed for the task. In the process of resolving disputes on an international construction project, the disputing parties and the neutral party

50、 are expected to participate in shedding home-grown habits and prejudices （Shilston and Hughes 1997）. Singh（1998） claims that in the context of large international projects where there are several parties of different nationalities involved, ADR offers the immediate attraction of avoiding any diffic

51、ulties of conflict of laws or jurisdictional problems which may arise. It also allows the parties to reach agreement as to how their disputes should be resolved which can take account of national and cultural differences.一种纠纷解决机制的好处将取决于使用它的人。该平衡的行为取决于指定任务的中立的一方。在解决国际建设工程纠纷的过程中，争端各方和中立的一方，预计参加'&#

52、39;脱落本土的习惯和偏见''（Shilston和1997年休斯）。辛格（1998）声称，“在那里有涉及不同国籍的几方大型国际项目的背景下，美国预托证券提供避免法律或可能出现的管辖权冲突问题的任何困难的直接吸引力。它还允许各方达成协议如何解决争端应以民族文化差异的帐户。”In construction disputes, the trend is toward conflict management, with the emphasis on designing a dispute prevention system to suit each project. This aim

53、s to focus on conflict in the very early stage of a project and to design the most appropriate ADR mechanism to be incorporated into the construction contract (Vorster 1993). In addition to the traditionally adapted arbitration, many new ADR mechanisms, such as mediation, an executive tribunal, adju

54、dication, a dispute resolution advisor, and a dispute review board, have been developed. In the worldwide comparative study complied by Fennet al. (1998), the preferred choice of ADR mechanisms and their practice in each country were quite varied. For most large international construction projects,

55、one of the ADR mechanisms, or a combination of the mechanisms in the form of multitier ADR mechanism, is incorporated into the construction contracts. This situation deserves vigorous investigation to decipher the relationship between cultural issues and choice of dispute resolution mechanisms for i

56、nternational construction projects. 在建筑纠纷，该趋势是冲突管理，重点放在设计适应每个项目的纠纷防范体系，此举旨在把重点放在项目的早期阶段的冲突上，并设计出最合适的能纳入施工合同的美国预托证券机制（沃斯特1993）。除了传统的适应仲裁，许多新的ADR机制，如调解，执行庭，审判，调解纠纷顾问，以及争端审查委员会，已经开发出来。在全世界范围内比较研究的fennet Al遵守。（ 1998）的美国预托证券机制的首选，和他们在每个国家的做法是相当不同的。对于大多数大型国际工程项目，其中的ADR机制，或机制的组合的多层ADR机制的形成，是纳入施工合同。这一情

57、况值得大力研究来破译的国际建设项目文化问题和选择的纠纷解决机制之间的关系。Research Methodology研究方法 This study inquires into the extent of major differences between Eastern an Western cultures in the perception of contractual arrangements and of resolving disputes. The study focuses on international projects involving parties from the U

58、.K. and Hong Kong,which have significant differences and similarities that are appropriate for this study. As the legal systems and construction industry institutional frameworks of both countries have the same origins, some of the side issues, such as differences in legal system,business language,

59、and structure of the construction industry, are eliminated from the scenario.Nevertheless, the organizational culture in the construction industries of the two countries is different, and Hong Kong is unique in terms of project management and government control of construction work Walker and Row-linson 1990;Chan and Chan 1999.本研究探讨在合同安排和解决纠纷的看法上东西方文化之间的主要差异程度。本研究重点是那些适合这项研究的有重大的差异和相似之处的英国和香港政党国际项目。作为法律制度建设的国家产业制度框架有着相同的起源，一些枝节问题，如法律制度的差异，商业语言和建筑结构行业，从方案中被淘汰。然而，在这两个国家的建筑业组织文化是不同的，香港是独特的项目管理和政府