《英语词汇学》复习资料

1、英语词汇学复习资料Chapter 1Word A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitraryand conventional. .“woma”n means Frau in German ， Femm e in Fren

2、ch and Funv in Chinese. On the other handthe same sound /rait/ can mean right ， rite and write ， though denoting different things， yet have the same sound.The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors.(At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns). the intern

3、al reason is English alphabet doesnot have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500. Borrowing of foreign languageVocabulary Vocabulary is most comm

4、only used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It canalso refer to all the words of a given dialect ， a given book ， a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.The general estimat

5、e of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words.of Words by use frequency ， by notion ， by origin. Basic word stock - the foundation of the vocabulary.all national character(most important ) - natural phenomenamost common things and phenomena of the human body and relationsworld arou

6、nd us names of plants and animalsaction ， size ， domain ， statenumerals ， pronouns ， prep. ， conj.stability they donate the commonest thing necessary to life , they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow.arrow , bow, chariot , knight - pa

7、st electricity , machine , car , planenowproductivity they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words, they can form new words with other roots andaffixes. . foot - football , footage , footpath , footerpolysemy - often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous. take to move or carry from on

8、e place to another to removea heart of goldcollocability quite a number of set expressions , idiomatic usages , proverbial saying and othersa heart of gold.heart a change of heartNon-basic vocabularyterminology technical termsphotoscanning ， hepatitis ， indigestion ， penicillin ， algebra ， trigonome

9、try ， calculusjargon - specialized vocabulary in certain professions.Bottom line ， ballpark figures ， bargaining chips ， hold him back ， hold him in ， paranoidslang substandard words often used in informal occasionsdough and bread ， grass and pot ， beaver ， smoky ， bear ， catch ， holler ， Roger ， X-

10、rays ，Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage.argot - words used by sub-cultured groupscan-opener ， dip ， persuadercant ， jargon ， argot are associated with ， or most available to ， specific groups of the population.dialectal words - only by speakers of the dialectbeauty ， chook ， coc

11、ky ， station ， auld ， build ， coo ， hame ， lough ， boglegal document and religiousarchaisms words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems writing or speech.legal document and religiousneologism newly created words with new meaning . microelectronics, futurology , AIDS, internet

12、, E-mailold meaning acquired new meaning . mouse ， monitor. Content word ( notional word ) denote clear notions.Functional word (empty word, form word)- do not have notions of their own, express the relation between notions , words and sentences.Content words constitute the main body of the English

13、vocabulary are numerous.Functional words are in a small number.Content words are growing.Functional words remain stable.Functional words do far more work of expression than content words. Native words - are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words, 50000-6000

14、0What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More areneutral in style( not stylistical specific)frequent in use ( in academic fields and science French ， Latin or Greek are used )( usage 70-90% )Borrowed words (loan words , borrowing )- words taken over from foreign language.

15、80%According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing， we can bring the loan words under 4 classes.- words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language. port from portus ( L) shift ， change ， shirt ， pork cup from cuppa ( L)li - retained their original pronunciation

16、 and spelling.d e cor (F) blitzkreeg (GG emir , intermez , rowtow , bazaar , rajar , status quoloans formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language. Word translated according to the meaning . mother tough from lingua maternal（ L）blac

17、k humor from humor noirlong time no see ， surplus value ， master piece. Words translated according to the soundkulak from kyrak（ Russ）lama from lama （ Tib ） ketchup tea4. Semantic loans - their meaning are borrowed from another language. stupid old dump new sassy dream old joy and peacepioneer old e

18、xplorer/person doing pioneering worknew a member of the young pioneerfresh old impertinent ， sassy ， cheekyChapter 2Indo-European language family （ Europe ， the Near East ， India ）Balto Slavic Indo-Iranian Italic GermanicPrussian Persian Portuguese NorwegianLithuanian Hindi Spanish IcelandiePolish I

19、talian DanishBulgarian Roumanian SwedishSlovenian French EnglishRussian GermanAlbanian Armenian Celtic HellenicIrish GreekBretonScottishHistory （时间，历史事件，特征）Old English （450-1150 ） totally 50， 000-60 ， 000 wordsThe 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts， the language was Celtic.The second lan

20、guage was the Latin of the Roman Legions.The Germanic tribes called angles ， Saxons and Jutes and their language ， Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English.At the end of 6th century ， the introduction of Christianity has a great impact on the E

21、nglish vocabulary.The common practice was to create new words by combining two native words.In the 9th century ， many Scandinavian words cameinto English. At least 900 words of Scandinavian are in modern English ， our daily life and speech.特点： highly inflected languagecomplex endings or vowel change

22、s ( full ending )Middle English ( 1150-1500 ) English ， Latin ， FrenchUntil 1066， although there were borrowings from Latin ， the influence on English was mainly Germanic. But the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.By the end of the 13th century ， English gradually

23、 come back into public areas.Between 1250 and 150 about 9000 words of French origin come into English. 75% of them are till in use today.As many as 2500 words of Dutch origin come into English.特点： fewer inflectionsleveled endingModern English( 1500-up to now ) early modern English ( 1500-1700 )late

24、modern English( 1700-up to now )The Renaissance ， Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the Western world s great literary heritage.The Industrial Revolution was in the mid-17 century. With the growth of colonization， British tentacles began astretching out of to every corner of the gl

25、obe， thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of theworld.After World War II ， many new words have been created to express new ideas ， inventions and scientificachievements.More words are created by means of word-formation.thousands and thousands of new words have been entered

26、to express new ideas inventions ， and scientificachievements.more words are created by means of word-formation.in modern English ， word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions English has evolved from a syntheticlanguage to the present analytic language.science and technology terms make

27、up about 45% of new words. words associated with life-style constitute of 24% andsocial and economic terms amount to over 10% .mention should be made of an opposite process of development . old words falling out if use.特点： ending are almost lost.Three main sources new wordsrapid development of moder

28、n science and technology， economic and political changesinfluence of other cultures and languagesThree modes of vocabulary developmentCreation - the formation of new words by using the existing materials , namely roots , affixes and other elements. ( This is the most important way of vocabulary expa

29、nsion.)Semantic change - an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need.Borrowing to take in words from other languages.(particularly in earlier time)( Reviving archaic or obsolete )French 30% ， Latin 8% ， Japanese Italian 7%， Spanish 6% ， German Greek 5% ， Russian Yiddish 4%Chapter 3M

30、orpheme A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language.( The smallest functional unit in thecomposition of words. ) A morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs.words - morphemes are realized by single morphs. Some morphemes are

31、realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs are allomorphemes. . the morphemeof plurality (-s ) has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context ， . in cats/s/ ， in bags/z/ ， in matches/iz/.Free morphemes or Free root The morphemes have complete meani

32、ng and van be used as free grammatical units in sentences ， . cat ， walk. They are identical with root words. morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.Bound Morphemes The morphemes cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemesto form words ， .

33、recollection (re+collect+ion ) collect - free morphemere-and - ion are bound morphemes. (include bound root and affix ) Bound morphemes are found in derived words.Bound root A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root.Unlike a free root， it is a b

34、ound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example：it conveys the meaning of “say or speak” as a Latin r oot ， but not as a word. With the prefix pre- ( =before ) we obtain the verb predict meaning“tell beforehand”。 Contradict “ speak against ”。 Bound roots are

35、either Latin or Greek.Although they are limited in number ， their productive power is amazing.Affixes Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. Almost affixes are bound morphemes.Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes Affixes attaches to the

36、 end of words to indicate grammaticalrelationships are inflectional， thus known as inflectional morphemes. The number of inflectional affixes is small andstable.There is the regular plural suffix -s( -es ) which is added to nouns such as machines ， desks.Simple present for the third person singular.

37、s (-es )The possessive case of nouns. s- er and - est to show comparative and superlative degreeThe past tense marker - ed- ing to form present participles or gerunds.Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemesto create new words.Prefixes

38、Prefixes are affixes that come before the word， such as ， pre+war ， sub+seaSuffixes suffixes are affixes that come after the word， for instance ， blood+y.Root A root is the basic form of a word ， which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.(What remains of a word after the remova

39、l of all affixes.).“internationalists ” removing inter - ， -al- ， -ist ，-s ， leaves the root nation.Stem a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. .“internationalists ”， nation is a root and a stemas well.a stem may consist of a single root or two roots and a root plus a affix.a stem can be

40、a root or a form bigger than a root.Chapter 4The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation.Not all the words that are produced by applying the rules are acceptable.Rules only provide a constant set of models from which new words are created from day to day.Rules the

41、mselves are not fixed but undergo changes.affixation 30%-40%compounding 28%-30%conversion 26%shortening 8%-10% ( clipping and acronymy ) blending and others 1%-5%Affixation ( Derivation ) the formation of words by adding word forming or derivational affixes to stems.( derivative 派生词)According to the

42、ir position ， affixation falls into ： prefixation and suffixation. Prefixation the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. It does not change the word-class of the stem but change its meaning.Negative prefixes a- (abnormal), dis- (disobey), in-(il- , ir- , im- )(injustice ), non- (non-sm

43、oker),un- ( unwilling ) un- are the most productive and can usually replace in- or dis- with adj.Reversative prefixesPejorative prefixesde- ( decentralize ) ， dis- ( disunite ) ， un- ( unwrap )Reversative prefixesPejorative prefixesmal- ( maltreat ) ， mis- ( mistrust ) ， pseudo- ( pseudo-science )Pr

44、efixes of degree or size - arch- (archbishop ), extra- (extra-strong ), hyper- (hyperactive ), macro- (macrocosm), micro- ( microcomputer ) ， mini- ( mini-election ) ， out- ( outlive ) ， over- ( overweigh ) ， sub- ( subheading ) ， super-( superfreeze ) ， sur- ( surtax ) ， ultra- ( ultra-conservative

45、 ) ， under- ( underdeveloped )Prefixes of orientation and attitude anti- (anti-nuclear ), contra- (contraflow ) , counter- , pro- (pro-student )Locative prefixes extra- (extraordinary ), fore- (forehead ), inter- (inter-city ), intra- (intra-party ), tele- ， trans-Prefixes of time and order ex- (ex-

46、wife ), fore- (foretell ), pre- , re- (reconsider )Number Prefixes bi- , multi- (poly- )(multi-purpose ), semi- (hemi-), tri- (tricycle ), uni-(mono-)( uniform )Miscellaneous prefixes - auto- , neo- (neo-Nazi ), pan- (pan-European ), vice-. Suffixation Suffixation is the formation of new words by ad

47、ding suffixes to stems. Change the grammatical function of stems ( the word class ) . Suffixes can be grouped on a grammatical basis.Noun suffixesDenominal nouns (名词 +suffix 名词)Concrete -eer ( engineer ) ， -er ( teenager ) ， -ess ( hostess ) ， -ette ( cigarette ) ， -let ( booklet )Abstract-age (wast

48、age), -dom (处于,一状态)(officialdom ), -ery (slavery ), -ery (-ry ), -hood (childhood ),-ing (farming ), - ism (主义) (terrorism ), -ship(状态)(sportsmanship )Deverbal nouns (动词 +suffix 名词)a. Denoting people -ant ( assistant ) ， -ee ( trainee ) ， -ent ( respondent ) ， -er ( -or )a. Denoting peopleb. Denotin

49、g action ， resultprocess b. Denoting action ， resultprocess ， state ， ect. -agelinkage ) ， -aldismissal ) ， -ance ( attendance ) ，-ation ( -ation ( -ition ， -tion ， -sion ， -ion ) ， -enceexistence ) ， -ing ( savings ) ， -ment ( statement )De-adjective nouns+suffix 名词) -ity ( popularity De-adjective

50、nouns+suffix 名词) -ity ( popularity ) ， -ness ( happiness )Nouns and adjectives suffixes-eseChinese ) ，-anAustralian ) ， -ist (主义) ( socialist )Adjective suffixesDenominal suffixes -ed ( wooded) ， -ful ( successful ) ， -ish ( foolish ) ， -less ( priceless ) ， -like ( lady-like ) ，-ly ( friendly ) ， -

51、y( smoky)-al (-ial ， -ical ) ( cultural ， residential ) ， -esque (picturesque ) ， -ic ( economic ) ， -ous (-eous ， -ious ) (coutageous )-ic andical can be affixed to the stem in some casesbut differ in meaning.Historicimportant in history) historicalof historyClassic-ic andical can be affixed to the

52、 stem in some casesbut differ in meaning.Historicimportant in history) historicalof historyClassicgreat ， memorable ) classicalof Latin or GreekComic ( of comedy ) comical ( funny )Economic ( in the economy ) economical ( money-saving )Electricpowered by electricityelectricalof electricityElectricpo

53、wered by electricityelectricalof electricityDeverbal suffixes -able ( -ible )( washable ) ， -ive (-ative ， -sive )(active ， decisive )Adverb suffixes -ly ( calmly ) ， -ward ( s)( homewards) ， -wise ( clockwise )Verb suffixes -ate ( originate ) ， -en ( darken ) ， - ( i ) fy ( beautify ) ， -ize ( ise

54、)( modernize )Nik most of them are considered slang.2. Compounding (Composition ) Compounding is a process of word-formation by joining two or more stems.Compounds- a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.三种形式 solid ， hyphe

55、nated ， open. Characteristics ( differ from free phrases )Phonetic featuresCompound ( not absolute ) Free phraseStress on the first element Stress on the second elementSemantic featuresCompounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity.Every compound should express a single idea just as one

56、 word.A lot of compounds are transparent and the meaning can be inferred from the separate elements of compounds.Grammatical featuresA compound plays a single grammatical role in a sentence.In adjective-noun compounds ， the adjective element cannot take inflectional suffixes.Compound Free phrasefine

57、 art finer artFormationMost compoundsconsist of 2 stems， but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationship within the words is considered complex.Noun compoundsAdjective compoundsVerb compounds ( through conversion and back formation )Back formed verb compounds a

58、re formed mainly by dropping the suffixes， -er ， -ing ， -ion ， -etc.( zero-derivation ， functional shift ) Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one classto another class. These words are new only in a grammatical sense. The most productive is between nouns and verbs.A chan

59、ge of grammatical functionThe different range of meaningConversion to nounVerb to noun-almost all monomorphemic verbs can be used as nouns.State ( of mind or sensation )Event or activityResult of the actionDoer of the actionTool or instrumentPlace of the actionAdjective to noun ( full conversion ， p

60、artial conversion )Words fully converted-a noun converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of nouns. It can take an identical article or - e (s).Words partially converted do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with definite articles. They retain some of